Oil, Gas and Energy

Steel Pipeline Systems [Part.2]

2009-05-09T17:00:00.004+07:00

Coupling Procedures.
a. For 8-inch Steel Tubing. Procedures for this tubing, because of weight (210-pound tubing), are different than for lighter pipelines. A saddle-type carrying bar (Figure B-2) and one extra person in the crew are required for constructing the 8-inch tubing pipeline. This extra person is a second helper who assists in raising the new section onto the lineup cage and in lowering it. The rest of the coupling operations are the same as those for a 4- or 6-inch line. Except for size, the 8-inch lineup cage and pipe-cleaner swab are identical to those used on the smaller pipe.

Coupling procedures for 8-inch steel tubing are as follows:
■The second helper assists the wrenchman's helper to raise their end of the tubing section and guide it onto the lineup cage, while the stabber and jackman handle the other end.

■The second helper moves to the other end and assists the jackman and stabber in aligning the section, as directed by the wrenchman.

■The second helper assists the jackman and stabber in lowering the new end of the pipeline on the lazy board. Then the second helper assists the wrenchman's helper with the next section.

For 8- and 12-Inch Standard Steel Pipe and 12-Inch Steel Tubing. Do not manually handle pipe sections heavier than the 6-inch (300-pound) standard-weight pipe. Use powered equipment to off-load the pipe and couple one section at a time. You can stockpile the pipe along the pipeline trace. If you do, use a pipelayer (Figure B-3) to handle the pipe. (The pipelayer is a commercial piece of equipment that must be leased.)

Swabbing and Cleaning. The swabber and pipe-end cleaner swab all of the pipe on a load, one row at a time, in a single operation. (They can swab the pipe while it is still on the truck or in a stockpile.) With one man at each end, they insert a snake in either outside pipe of the top row and pass it through to the other end. The man at the end where the snake is coming through pulls it through the first pipe and simultaneously feeds the snake back through the next pipe in the row. The men repeat this operation until they swab all the pipes (Figure B-4).

(2) Moving the Pipe. The pipe is picked in the middle with an automatic clam-type release hook attached to the hoisting line of the stringing boom. The pipe joint is first raised only a few inches from the pipe. The swabber and pipe-end cleaner, working at opposite ends, clean and file the pipe land and groove on each end at the same time. At the same time, the wrenchman and helper (one team) and the jackman and stabber (another team) construct cribbing of 4- by 4-inch by 3-footlong blocks. This cribbing takes the place of the lazy board and pipe jack. Each of the blocks is tied together with rope. Doing so allows the wrenchman's helper to drag one cribbing set at a time when moving it to the next location.

(3) Positioning the Pipe. After the pipe ends are cleaned, the pipe section is swung into approximate alignment on the pipeline. The stabber inserts the lineup-cage snake through it (only one snake is used). The jackman and wrenchman's helper guide the pipe joint into position on the lineup cage protruding from the end of the line. The stringing-boom operator raises or lowers the load and extends or retracts the boom, as directed by the stabber or wrenchman. Once aligned, the jackman keeps the joint aligned by leaning or shoving against the end.

(4) Installing the Coupling. After tightening the coupling, the crew lifts the pipeline high enough so they can pull the cribbing stack out from under the pipeline and drag it forward (about 40 feet) to the far end of where they will install the next section. The jackman lowers the pipeline and guides it onto the cribbing stack. At the same time the stabber places the gasket inside out on the end of the pipeline. As soon as the coupling is tightened, the stabber pulls the lineup cage forward. The stabber erects the cribbing stacks while couplings are installed. As he moves forward, the wrenchman releases the pipe lifting tongs so that the pipe-stringing boom will swing back to the bolster truck for the next pipe section.

Steel Pipeline Systems [Part.1]

2009-05-09T16:49:00.004+07:00

Steel Pipe. Steel pipe (light- and standard-gauge wall thickness) is available in 20-foot lengths with diameters of 4, 6, and 8 inches. Steel pipe is coupled using a standard, two-piece split-ring coupling. The coupling uses two half-moon sections, which are bolted together over a one-piece gasket. The average time required to couple together two sections of steel pipe is 5 minutes.

Lightweight Steel Grooved Pipe. This pipe is made of light gauge steel with API STD5L pipe nipples welded to each end. The pipe ends are single-grooved for use with bolted couplings. This pipe comes in 20-foot sections with 4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-inch nominal IDs. Because of its thin wall, lightweight steel pipe should not be buried nor used for submerged stream crossings or in populated areas and locations where fire and damage hazards are acute.

Standard-Weight Steel (API STD5L) Pipe. This regular commercial-type pipe, which is manufactured to the standards of the API, is used when lightweight pipe or tubing is unavailable or unsuitable. The pipe comes in 20-foot sections grooved for coupling and in random lengths and diameters beveled for welding.

Bolted Coupling. This is a standard, split-ring, groove-type coupling (Figure B-1). It consists of two housing segments; two bolts and nuts; and a synthetic-rubber, oil-resistant, self-sealing gasket. The coupling and gasket are designed so that the pipe joint seals under pressure and vacuum. The coupling provides a sufficient amount of angular deflection and slack adjustment for expansion and contraction of the line between adjacent joints.

When using bolted couplings, the crew consists of a crew leader, wrenchman, wrenchman's helper, stabber, jackman, swabber, and pipe-end cleaner. The bolted-coupling crew will normally require--

■Two 20-inch hinged socket wrench handles. ■Two sockets to fit size of pipeline coupling nut and wrench. ■File. ■Dauber brush. ■Lazy board. ■Two pipeline jacks with two snakes. ■Pipeline cleaner swab with one snake. ■Wooden blocks (4 by 4 by 10 inches) with carrying rope attached. ■Full half-gallon bucket or one-gallon bucket half filled with GAA grease. ■Cleaning rags.

Pipe Saw, 8-Inch Capacity for Hazardous Locations. This is a reciprocating-type saw powered by an air motor. You can cut steel, cast iron, and stainless or alloy steel pipe as well as bar stock structural and rail. Use this saw to cut out a damaged portion of pipeline when operating in hazardous locations. You can operate when clearances are at minimum and you can make a straight, right-angle cut.

Tapping Machine. This machine is used for tapping into a pressurized pipeline to establish a service tap or to install a pressure-relief device. This operation can be done without shutting down the pipeline system. The machine uses a hole saw; a holder-pilot performs the cutting operation. He retains the separated pipe after he completes the cut and allows for its removal.
The tapping machine is lightweight and easy to operate and has an adjustable automatic-feed rate for any cutting condition. The advance rate for cutting is set by the feed-adjustment knob. This knob engages a friction-type clutch that automatically regulates the feed rate. The operator loosens (slow feed) or tightens (faster feed) the feed-adjustment knob to obtain the correct amount of force for the task. The machine comes with a ratchet crank for manual operation.

Deadweight Tester. This tester is used to calibrate pressure gauges, verify the set points of spring-loaded relief valves, and provide precise pressure readings for pipelines. The tester uses known weights that directly correlate to known pressure gauges and the verification of set points for spring-loaded relief valves.

Steel Pipeline Systems

2009-03-18T21:15:00.003+07:00

a. Steel Pipe. Steel pipe (light- and standard-gauge wall thickness) is available in 20-foot lengths with diameters of 4, 6, and 8 inches. Steel pipe is coupled using a standard, two-piece split-ring coupling. The coupling uses two half-moon sections, which are bolted together over a one-piece gasket. The average time required to couple together two sections of steel pipe is 5 minutes.

b. Lightweight Steel Grooved Pipe. This pipe is made of light gauge steel with API STD5L pipe nipples welded to each end. The pipe ends are single-grooved for use with bolted couplings. This pipe comes in 20-foot sections with 4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-inch nominal IDs. Because of its thin wall, lightweight steel pipe should not be buried nor used for submerged stream crossings or in populated areas and locations where fire and damage hazards are acute.

c. Standard-Weight Steel (API STD5L) Pipe. This regular commercial-type pipe, which is manufactured to the standards of the API, is used when lightweight pipe or tubing is unavailable or unsuitable. The pipe comes in 20-foot sections grooved for coupling and in random lengths and diameters beveled for welding.

d. Bolted Coupling. This is a standard, split-ring, groove-type coupling (Figure B-1). It consists of two housing segments; two bolts and nuts; and a synthetic-rubber, oil-resistant, self-sealing gasket. The coupling and gasket are designed so that the pipe joint seals under pressure and vacuum. The coupling provides a sufficient amount of angular deflection and slack adjustment for expansion and contraction of the line between adjacent joints.
When using bolted couplings, the crew consists of a crew leader, wrenchman, wrenchman's helper, stabber, jackman, swabber, and pipe-end cleaner. The bolted-coupling crew will normally require--

Two 20-inch hinged socket wrench handles.
Two sockets to fit size of pipeline coupling nut and wrench.
File.
Dauber brush.
Lazy board.
Two pipeline jacks with two snakes.
Pipeline cleaner swab with one snake.
Wooden blocks (4 by 4 by 10 inches) with carrying rope attached.
Full half-gallon bucket or one-gallon bucket half filled with GAA grease.
Cleaning rags.

e. Pipe Saw, 8-Inch Capacity for Hazardous Locations. This is a reciprocating-type saw powered by an air motor. You can cut steel, cast iron, and stainless or alloy steel pipe as well as bar stock structural and rail. Use this saw to cut out a damaged portion of pipeline when operating in hazardous locations. You can operate when clearances are at minimum and you can make a straight, right-angle cut.

f. Tapping Machine. This machine is used for tapping into a pressurized pipeline to establish a service tap or to install a pressure-relief device. This operation can be done without shutting down the pipeline system. The machine uses a hole saw; a holder-pilot performs the cutting operation. He retains the separated pipe after he completes the cut and allows for its removal.

The tapping machine is lightweight and easy to operate and has an adjustable automatic-feed rate for any cutting condition. The advance rate for cutting is set by the feed-adjustment knob. This knob engages a friction-type clutch that automatically regulates the feed rate. The operator loosens (slow feed) or tightens (faster feed) the feed-adjustment knob to obtain the correct amount of force for the task. The machine comes with a ratchet crank for manual operation.

g. Deadweight Tester. This tester is used to calibrate pressure gauges, verify the set points of spring-loaded relief valves, and provide precise pressure readings for pipelines. The tester uses known weights that directly correlate to known pressure gauges and the verification of set points for spring-loaded relief valves.

Relief Valves

2008-12-07T21:58:00.002+07:00

Valves [Lesson 6]

5. Relief Valves
Purpose: Relief valves are used to protect systems from over-pressure or to control processes by allowing flow to commence when a certain pressure has been reached.
Operation: Refer to Figure

A spring holds the valve disc in place against the seat. The valve, therefore, will not open until the force exerted on the valve disc by the fluid pressure exceeds the force exerted by the spring. When this occurs, flow can take place through the outlet port until the fluid pressure is reduced to below the valve operatingpressure. The spring force will then release the valve.

Relief valves operate automatically and are usually pre-set to a specified relief setting by the manufacturers or adjusted when in use, if required. Re-calibration is then required

Butterfly Valves

2008-12-07T21:52:00.003+07:00

Valves [Lesson 4]

4. Butterfly Valves

Purpose: Butterfly valves are used for controlling flow and can act as a shutuoff ~va1ve, if the sealing arrangement is designed accordinglyThe disc or wafer rotates about a vertical axis and can be turned through 90º.

The disc seals against the opening to cut off flow and can be positioned at a point between fully closed and fully open as required.

Some butterfly valves have a direct acting lever, others are operated through gearboxes when finer control is required. In most cases, a clockwise movement will close the valve

Globe Valves

2008-12-07T21:44:00.002+07:00

Valves [Lesson 3]

2. Globe Valves
Purpose Globe valves are used to control flow as they can operate quite safely at part openings. A good shutoff can also be achieved if required
Operation: Refer to Figure

When the hand wheel is turned clockwise, the disc is against a seat, stopping the flow. Turning the hand wheel anti-clockwise lifts the disc from its seat and allows flow to continue.

The high pressure is usually on the bottom of the plug, so that the stem, seal, etc. are not under continuous pressure.

Applications are widespread, including domestic water taps

Valves

2008-12-07T21:29:00.005+07:00

Valves [Lesson 2]

Specific Types

1. Gate Valves

Purpose: gate valves are used when a tight shut-off is required. They must not be used for throttling (i.e. must be fully off or fully on) as a restricted flow through a gate valve will erode the seat of the wedge disc.

The wedge-shaped disc is moved up to open the valve by turning the wheel anti-clockwise. To shut off the flow, the wheel is turned fully clockwise until the disc is properly seated and covers the opening.

One common type is the rising stem type. In other designs, the wheel is fixed to the stem and rises with it.

The position of the stem/stem and hand wheel indicates whether the valve is open or shut. If the stem is raised, the valve is open.

2. Ball/Plug Valves
Purpose: Ball and plug valves are used to provide a quick, simple shut-off. They are operated by turning the ball or plug through 90º. Ball and plug valves should not be used for throttling, as a restriction in the flow will lead to erosion of the valve.
Operation: Refer to Figure

The ball or plug has an opening through the centre. When this opening is in line with the inlet and outlet ports, flow will be allowed. When the ball or plug is turned through 90; no flow can take place. Good sealing can be obtained, particularly when special sealing rings made of PTFE/Teflon are used.

Some ball and plug valves are lubricated to provide a seal and prevent wear, and should be regularly lubricated with the proper lubricant.

Valves

2008-12-07T21:17:00.002+07:00

VALVES [Lesson 1]

Process Valve Types And Applications
Valves are used in both domestic and industrial situations to control the flow of liquids, solids and gases.

The most common and familiar valves are the taps used in the home to control the hot and cold water. In the oil industry, valves are a major element in the control of operations. In general, valves are used for one or more of three main purposes:
1. To control the rate of flow (throttle);
2. To shut off/permit flow (ON/OFF function);
3. To isolate systems and protect products.

There are a wide variety of valve types and designs available from many suppliers in a wide range of materials; the main types and their uses are
- Gate Valve: Used for shut off - ON/OFF function.
- Ball/Plug Valves: Used for shut off - ON/OFF function
- Globe Valves: Used for control of flow and shut off.
- Butterfly Valves: Used for control of flow and shut off.
- Relief Valves: Spring loaded to open at a given pressure, and used to protect systems from over-pressure.
- Check Valves: To allow flow in one direction only.
- Fusible Link Valves/Piston Operated Valves: Quick acting and used for emergency shut off.
- Twin Sea valves: Used when tight shut off required.
- Semi-Needle Valves: Used in conjunction instruments to bleed off part of the flow.
- Ball Check Valves: Used with gauge glasses as safety precaution.

There are other less commonly used types of valves.
The actual construction/design of gate valves, for example, may vary widely depending on its application,the materials used, or the manufacturer’s own special features. The basic principle, however, will be the same.

Valves can be specially made to work at high or low temperatures (cryogenic), or to very high standards for use in explosive atmospheres, or when no leakage is permissible.

Design Features

1. Internal Sealing Systems And Materials
All valves are prone to leakage as it is difficult to obtain a perfect seal, although the use of special seal materials and designs can have very good result If high security is required, use can be made of two valves in series, one to act as the main valve and the second as a back-up should the first fail.

Some valves have bleed holes installed to detect leakage across the seal. If two valves are used together, a bleed hole may be fitted in the pipe between them, which can be opened when the valves are closed to drain any leakage. (Block and Bleed valves)

2. Body/Housing Materials
A wide range of materials is used in valve manufacture, the particular material depending largely on the fluids to be handled. Iron and steel are mainly used for oil/petroleum applications with most valves being made of mild or alloy steel. Brass valves are used for water (as well as cast iron, steel and other alloys).

Stainless steel is used for acids and other corrosive liquids. Bronze is also a commonly used material which can cope with most liquids.

3. External Sealing Systems And Materials
As well as the main seal between valve and disc, wedge, etc. there are other seals required to prevent external leaks. Gaskets or ‘0’ rings are used between surfaces such as flanges, where no relative movement takes place. The main problems occur around the valve stem, which both rotates and, in some cases, moves vertically as well.

Special glands or packings are used which can be compressed by gland nuts to increase sealing. Special materials have to be used in corrosive applications, but an asbestos based fibre is a commonly used packing material with PTFE/Teflon being increasingly common. ‘O’ rings can also be used as shaft seals and are generally made of rubber.

4. Actuation of Valves
Many smaller valves are hand operated if they are accessible. Larger valves require power actuators and inaccessible valves of all types require some form of mechanical or electrical actuator. Pneumatic (compressed air) and hydraulic cylinders and mechanisms are widely used in larger applications. Smaller valves can be operated with solenoids, but larger valves require more complex motors and mechanisms for electrical power operation.

5. Standards of Manufacture
There are many standards to which valves can be made:
• Metric/Imperial dimensions;
• British Standards BS;
• German Standards DIN;
• US Standards ANSI (previously ASA)
• American Petroleum Institution API.

Care must be taken that valves, flanges, etc. and other equipment are compatible, or leakage may occur.
API flanges and other equipment are commonly used in the oil industry. The standards lay down performance requirements as well as dimensions and material. Valves are rated according to the maximum pressure and temperature at which they can safely be used.

6. Quick Closing Valves
Quick closing valves can be installed in pipelines and systems to isolate sections in case of fire, leakage or other emergencies.

A spring is usually used to operate the valve and can be released by a number of methods:
• Fire melts fusible link;
• Remote manual cable;
• Air operated actuating cylinder;
• Electrical solenoid, etc.

If the valve can be installed so that the line pressure will help to close it, this will increase the sealing capability. Swinging check valves are often used as the basis of a quick closing valve, although ball valves, plug valves and butterfly valves are also suitable.

Sizing Of Pipelines

2008-12-07T21:13:00.000+07:00

SIZING OF PIPELINES

Oil Pipelines
Pumping a specified quantity of a given oil over a given distance may be achieved by using a large diameter pipe with a small pressure drop, or small diameter pipe with a greater pressure drop.

The first alternative will tend to a higher capital cost with lower running costs. It is necessary to strike an economic balance between these two.

There are no hard and fast rules, which can be laid down for achieving this balance. For instance, a pumping station in a populated area may consist of a simple building, involving the provision of electrically driven pumps, taking power from outside sources and little else. To obtain the same pumping power in remote or undeveloped countries would involve a considerably more complicated and expensive installation. Obviously in this latter case, it is desirable to reduce the number of pumping stations at the cost of using larger diameter piping.

Similarly, the cost of the pipeline will vary considerably, depending upon circumstances. It will be costly in highly industrialised areas, environmentally sensitive areas, offshore or in hostile, mountainous or swamp areas; cheaper in flat, soft but firm, undeveloped terrain.

Gas Pipelines
Sizing problems encountered in gas lines differ considerably from those of oil lines. A simplification results from the negligible weight of the gas as the pressure in the line is virtually independent of the ground elevation on the other hand, the compressibility of gas introduces the complication of the density decreasing and consequently the volume rate of flow increasing in the direction of flow. In an oil line of constant diameter laid on level ground, the pressure decreases uniformly with distance and the velocity stays constant whereas, in a gas line, the velocity increases as the pressure gradient decreases with an exponential, which becomes progressively steeper.

The characteristics of pumps and compressors also determine the site of any pipeline booster stations as well as the initial pipeline conditions which have to be met Pumps need to be sited in positions where they are receiving the crude oil at a pressure greater than the vapour pressure of the crude oil, whereas compressors have to be sited at a location where both the pressure and velocity of the gas are at optimum conditions.

Pipeline Risers

2008-12-07T21:05:00.003+07:00

PIPELINE RISERS

General
An important consideration in the design of offshore pipelines is connection to surface facilities. Often, the pipeline on the seabed is connected to a riser, which extends to a surface producing facility.Many types of pipeline risers have been used in the past, including risers that can be sat on site and pre-installed risers that can be connected to the pipe on the seabed by a subsea tie-in arrangement Selection of a particular installation method is influenced by several factors, including water depth, project schedule, economics and platform design. Specialised analysis of the pipeline and riser are needed to ensure flexibility of the connection and safety of the system.

Several methods exist for connecting a subsea pipeline to a pre-installed (existing) riser on a platform. They include the following:

Flanged Connections
Flanged connections are widely used for pipeline-riser tie-ins. Long pipe spools, fabricated in a jig aboard a work vessel, are usually used with flanges. Alternatively, swivels have been used to accommodate annular misalignments between the pipe and riser; the spools normally have right angle or Z-bends to provide flexibility in accommodating thermal and pressure expansion. In some cases, particularly in large diameter pipelines, rotating flanges are used to ease the installation.

Some operators favour flanges, while others favour hyperbaric welding. The advantage of flanges is that they permit easier repairs in the event of pipeline/riser damage or corrosion. There have been some reports of leaks and they can take a long time to locate. But this is not generally regarded as a major factor for eliminating flanges.

Hyperbaric Welding
Hyperbaric welding is conducted in an inlet atmosphere (nitrogen, argon or helium) at pressures relative to the depth of water. It has been used mostly for pipeline-riser tie-ins in the deep waters of the North Sea.
The hyperbaric work chamber and alignment frame are normally handled by a pipe-lay barge, a derrick barge or a large work vessel.

Subsea Atmospheric Welding
Subsea atmospheric welding is carried out inside a caisson, which is maintained at atmospheric pressure on the seabed. The gas within the caisson may be air, nitrogen, helium or argon, depending upon weld specification. Higher-quality welds can be obtained than those obtained under hyperbaric welding conditions.
An alternative system consists of a habitat chamber, which is a permanent part of the platform and into which pipe is pulled.

After pipe is pulled into the chamber, the chamber is sealed and pumped dry.

Mechanical Connectors
Mechanical connectors clamp two pipe ends together without the need for welding.

Surface Welding
The surface welding method is used for simultaneous installation of a pipeline and riser. It is most widely employed for pipelines up to about 30 in. diameter and in water depths to about 350 ft.

In this method, pipe is first laid on bottom near the platform. The lay barge lifts the pipe to the surface using davits, buoyancy devices, or both. A carefully planned pick-up procedure is used so that pipe is safely lifted without over-stressing. The riser is then set into position next to the platform leg and clamps are installed to fasten the riser to the platform legs.

Pipeline Pigging

2008-11-10T10:43:00.006+07:00

Pipeline Pigging

General
Pipeline pigs and spheres are used for a variety of purposes in both liquids and natural gas pipelines.

Pigs and spheres are forced through the pipeline by the pressure of the flowing fluid. A pig usually consists of a steel body with rubber or plastic cups attached to seal against the inside of the pipeline and to allow pressure to move the pig along the pipeline. Different types of brushes and scrapers can be attached to the body of the pig for cleaning or to perform other functions.

Figure 4.28 illustrates a variety of pipeline pigs

Pipeline pigging is done for the following reasons:

• To clean up pipelines before use (foam pigs);

• To fill lines for hydrostatic testing, dewatering following hydrostatic testing, and drying and purging operations (spheres and foam pigs);

• To periodically remove wax, dirt and water from the pipeline (scraper pigs and brush pigs);• To sweep liquids from gas pipelines (spheres)

• To separate products to reduce the amount of mixing between different types of crude oil or refined products (squeegee pigs and “Go-Devil” pigs);

• To control liquids in a pipeline, including two-phase pipelines (spheres and foam pigs);

• To inspect pipelines for defects such as dents, buckles or corrosion (“intelligent-pigs or caliper pigs).

(Figure 4.29 illustrates a kaliper pig.)

Differential pressure is required to move a pig or sphere through the pipeline. The force required depends on elevation changes in the pipeline, friction between the pig and the pipe wall and the amount of lubrication available in the line. (A dry gas pipeline provides less lubrication tan a crude oil pipeline, for example).

Cups are designed to seal against the wall by making them larger than the inside diameter of the pipe. As the cups become worn, the amount of blow-by fluid by-passing the pigs increases because the seal is not as effective.

In the case of spheres, a certain amount of over-inflation is required to provide a seal. (In two-phase pipelines, spheres are sometimes under-inflated to allow some blow-by to lower the density of the fluid ahead of the sphere).

Pigs and spheres travel at about the same velocity as the fluid in the pipeline and travel speed is relatively constant.

Pigging Operations

Pigs are used in all types of pipelines to increase efficiency and avoid problems at pump or compressor stations that could result from the presence of unwanted materials. Brushes and scrapers on a cleaning pig remove dirt and scale from the pipeline walls. Brush and scraper pigs feature longitudinal boles, which pass through the body of the pig. The holes allow a flow of fluid through the pig to prevent the build-up of wax or debris in front of the pig.

A pig can remove very large amounts of debris if it is run over a long distance.

For example, assume a pig is run in a 24 in. pipeline, 100 miles long, and removes 0.016 in. of wax material from the wall of the pipeline. After 100 miles, a plug about 1,450 ft long would form. For this reason, pipelines are operated to very definite pigging programmes.Pipelines are often pigged first during testing following construction. Most pipelines are tested with water (hydrostatic testing) either in sections or over the entire length. A foam pig or pigs is normally sent ahead of the water when filling the test section to prevent mixing the test water with air in the line. Internallycoated pipelines are often flushed with water ahead of a pig to prevent debris from being dragged along the inside surface, damaging the coating.

After testing, the water is usually displaced with the fluid to be transported in the pipeline. A pig is run between the two fluids to separate them. In gas pipelines, the pig is used to “dewater” the pipeline by running it behind the test water. Additional pigs may also be run to ensure that as much moisture as possible is removed from the line.

Launching And Receiving

Equipment is required to introduce the pig into the pipeline and to retrieve the pig at the end of the segment being pigged. A launcher is required at the upstream of the section and a receiver at the down-stream end.

The distance between these pig “traps” depends on service, location of pump or compressor stations, operating procedures and the material used in the pig.

The design of pig launchers, pig traps and related equipment is done in accordance with standards developed by several organisations. Traps for brush pigs, squeegees and foam pigs include a barrel, short pup joint, a trap valve, a side valve and a bypass line. The barrel holds the pig for loading and unloading and is equipped with a quick-opening closure or blind flange. A barrel diameter larger than the diameter of the pipeline served is required in order to allow the Pig to be successfully launched or retrieved. Barrel length depends on operating procedures, service and available space.

Figure 4.30 and Figure 4.31 illustrate a pig launcher and a pig receiver respectively.

Sphere launchers are often designed for multiple sphere launching and recovery duties and the barrels for sphere launchers are typically longer than those for other types of pigs. The operator can load these magazines with several spheres that can be launched automatically. This approach is often used in two-phase pipelines where the barrels may be designed to accommodate over lo spheres. The sphere launcher consists of the barrel, a launching mechanism, an isolation valve, an equaliser valve and a reducing tee. A drain can serve as an equalizing line.

Figure 4.32 illustrates a sphere launcher/receiver system

Figure 4.34, shows a sphere being filled with antifreeze solution.

Combination pig and sphere launchers can also be designed if both cleaning pigs and spheres for liquid control are needed.

Pig Launching And Receiving Procedures

Pig launching and receiving procedures are often supervised by senior operations staff and fully monitored by all pipeline users but the actual procedures laid down for each pig launching/pig receiving facility will vary.

Pigging Problems

The pig launcher-receiver is probably the only high-pressure vessel on the facility, in hydrocarbon service, which is regularly opened to the atmosphere and then pressured as a normal operating procedure.

If the launcher/receiver is incorrectly purged and pressured, an explosion becomes a major possibility. To reduce the chances of such an incident, the relative procedures are commonly backed up by an “interlock-system”, which prevents the movement of valves and door closure devices until certain criteria have been met within the system.

Figure 4.33 illustrates the logic of a simple interlock system.

In the last decade at least two launchers have been involved in major explosions in Britain.

When pigs are launched into a pipeline there is always the possibility that the pig will stop or reduce the flow of fluid through the pipeline. The most common incidents and their causes are:

The pig fails to launch (this only becomes apparent alter the launch procedure is at its final stages. The possible causes are:

1. The pig is too small (wrong pig or under- sized) and the flow cannot pick up the pig in the launcher barrel.

2. The pig is too large, wrong pig or oversized and it is jammed in the exit to the launcher.

3. The pig is too far back in the launcher.

The pig indicator, Figure 4.35 should show that the pig has launched. They are, however, not always reliable.

The pig is launched successfully but fails to arrive on time with no major changes in pipeline pressures or flows. The possible causes are:
1. The pig is too small (wrong size) and cannot climb the riser into the receiver.

2. The pig has disintegrated into its component parts.

3. The pig is hung on a bend and the cups have “flipped” forwards to allow full flow.

The pig is launched successfully but fails to arrive on time and there is an increase in pipeline pressure drop in pipeline flow.

The possible causes are:

1. The pig has hung up on a bend or ’T ’piece (pig is too long for bend radius).

2. The wrong size of pig was launched (too large in diameter).

3. The pipeline has been dented and the pig is stuck at the damaged section.

The pigs “leap-frog” each other in the pipeline; (usually foam pigs).

The possible causes are:

1. The operator launched them 1, 3, 2 but did not realise (most common);

2. The front pig hangs up on an obstruction and is only cleared by the second pig rolling over it.

Spheres arrive with huge chunks missing. The most likely cause is that the launcher valve has taken a bite out of the sphere as it was launched.

Launcher valves are often half-cup ball valves, which rotate through 180º to launch the sphere. Oversized spheres hang over the side of the cup and are sliced as the cup rotates.

Pigs and spheres go into by-pass lines, junction ‘T pieces or other pipelines. Operator error or process upsets may often create situations where the sphere or pig can deviate from its normal path. In one known instance a 28” diameter neoprene sphere travelled into a 12” diameter pipe for some considerable distance before flow was stopped.

Whatever the “Causes” of pigging problems, the “effects” can be severe and in some instances the pipeline has had to be cut out to remove the offending pig.

Pumps

2008-10-13T12:23:00.002+07:00

Lesson 1 — ABOUT PUMPS

Lesson Introduction
All pumps are broadly classified into two general categories: kinetic and positive-displacement. Within these categories, there are six common classes of pumps.

In this lesson, the six classes of pumps are described and identified according to the method used to create pressure. Within each class, in turn, are several types of pumps that vary from each other by their pumping method, and consequently their operating technique. For you to work safely and efficiently in a facility, you must know about the pumps your facility uses and how they operate.

In this lesson, you will learn the categories, classes, and types of pumps. You will also learn the functions of each of the common classes of pumps.

Categories of Pumps
Pumps can be broadly classified into two categories: kinetic pumps and positive-displacement pumps.

Kinetic Pumps
A kinetic pump builds pressure by first creating high fluid velocity with a rotating element. Then the fluid velocity is converted to pressure by the shape of the discharge passage. Because the fluid1 in a kinetic pump is always free to spin unrestricted within the pump casing, the discharge may be restricted or blocked without building up excessive pressure.

Positive-displacement Pumps
A positive-displacement pump is one in which a trapped amount of liquid is forced (or displaced) from the pump as the pumping mechanism moves. In theory, pressure is limited only by the power available to move the pumping element. In practice, if the discharge of a positive displacement pump is blocked, either the pump driver will stall, or the pump will rupture to relieve the pressure

NOTE
In general practice, a relief valve is installed on the discharge of a positive-displacement pump to protect against over pressure if the discharge becomes restricted or blocked. The relief valve outlet is usually routed back into the suction line. It is a dangerous practice to intentionally block the discharge valve of a positive-displacement pump and depend on the relief valve to relieve the pressure.
1 A substance that conforms to the outline of its container and has a tendency to flow. Liquids, gases, and vapors are fluids.
2 The measure of a liquid’s force per unit area.

Six Common Classes of Pumps
There are six common classes of pumps used in the process industry:
• Centrifugal
• Axial flow
• Turbine propeller
• Reciprocating
• Rotary
• Metering

The first three classes are categorized as kinetic pumps, while the last three are positive-displacement pumps. Each of the six classes applies different methods to create pressure, and these differences significantly affect pump operation.

Mechanical Design, Second EditionBy Peter Childs

2008-09-02T07:07:00.004+07:00

Mechanical Design, Second EditionBy Peter Childs
Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann
Number Of Pages: 384
Publication Date: 2003-12-30
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 0750657715
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9780750657716
Binding: Paperback

Product Description:
This book introduces the subject of total design, and introduces the design and selection of various common mechanical engineering components and machine elements. These provide "building blocks", with which the engineer can practice his or her art.

The approach adopted for defining design follows that developed by the SEED (Sharing Experience in Engineering Design) programme where design is viewed as "the total activity necessary to provide a product or process to meet a market need." Within this framework the book concentrates on developing detailed mechanical design skills in the areas of bearings, shafts, gears, seals, belt and chain drives, clutches and brakes, springs and fasteners. Where standard components are available from manufacturers, the steps necessary for their specification and selection are developed.

The framework used within the text has been to provide descriptive and illustrative information to introduce principles and individual components and to expose the reader to the detailed methods and calculations necessary to specify and design or select a component. To provide the reader with sufficient information to develop the necessary skills to repeat calculations and selection processes, detailed examples and worked solutions are supplied throughout the text.

This book is principally a Year/Level 1 and 2 undergraduate text. Pre-requisite skills include some year one undergraduate mathematics, fluid mechanics and heat transfer, principles of materials, statics and dynamics. However, as the subjects are introduced in a descriptive and illustrative format and as full worked solutions are provided, it is possible for readers without this formal level of education to benefit from this book. The text is specifically aimed at automotive and mechanical engineering degree programmes and would be of value for modules in design, mechanical engineering design, design and manufacture, design studies, automotive power-train and transmission and tribology, as well as modules and project work incorporating a design element requiring knowledge about any of the content described.

The aims and objectives described are achieved by a short introductory chapters on total design, mechanical engineering and machine elements followed by ten chapters on machine elements covering: bearings, shafts, gears, seals, chain and belt drives, clutches and brakes, springs, fasteners and miscellaneous mechanisms. Chapters 14 and 15 introduce casings and enclosures and sensors and actuators, key features of most forms of mechanical technology. The subject of tolerancing from a component to a process level is introduced in Chapter 16. The last chapter serves to present an integrated design using the detailed design aspects covered within the book. The design methods where appropriate are developed to national and international standards (e.g. ANSI, ASME, AGMA, BSI, DIN, ISO).

The first edition of this text introduced a variety of machine elements as building blocks with which design of mechanical devices can be undertaken. The approach adopted of introducing and explaining the aspects of technology by means of text, photographs, diagrams and step-by-step procedures has been maintained. A number of important machine elements have been included in the new edition, fasteners, springs, sensors and actuators. They are included here. Chapters on total design, the scope of mechanical engineering and machine elements have been completely revised and updated. New chapters are included on casings and enclosures and miscellaneous mechanisms and the final chapter has been rewritten to provide an integrated approach. Multiple worked examples and completed solutions are included.

* New chapters on casings and enclosures, springs, and fasteners
* New information on important machine elements such as sensors and actuators
* Clear explanation of the total mechanical design process through the use of text, photographs, diagrams, step-by-step procedures and case studies

Summary: Good General Reference
Rating: 4
This is a reasonably "up to date" reference book for general mechanical design. The book has well organized solutions that include typical trial and error calculations that are close to real life design solutions where balance between what you need and what is available is often a necessary design compromise.

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ASHRAE Handbook 2007 - HVAC Application (SI Edition)

2008-08-31T20:08:00.003+07:00

ASHRAE Handbook 2007

HVAC Application (SI Edition)
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2008 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC: Systems and Equipment (SI Edition)

2008-08-31T17:49:00.006+07:00

2008 ASHRAE Handbook - HVAC: Systems and Equipment (SI Edition)
by ASHRAE
Publisher: Amer Society of Heating
Number Of Pages:
Publication Date: 2008-06
ISBN-10 / ASIN: 1933742348
ISBN-13 / EAN: 9781933742342
Binding: Hardcover

Highlights of Revisions for 2008

The 2008 ASHRAE Handbook—HVAC Systems and Equipment discusses various systems and the equipment (components or assemblies) that comprise them, and describes features and differences. This information helps system designers and operators in selecting and using equipment. An accompanying CD-ROM contains all the volume’s chapters in both I-P and SI units.

This edition includes two new chapters, described as follows:

Chapter 16, Ultraviolet Lamp Systems, includes a review of the fundamentals of UVC germicidal energy’s impact on microorganisms; how UVC lamps generate germicidal radiant energy; common approaches to the application of UVGI systems for upper-air room, in-duct, and surface cleansing; and a review of human safety and maintenance issues.
Chapter 17, Combustion Turbine Inlet Cooling (CTIC), provides a detailed discussion of how CTIC is used to help improve combustion turbine performance.

Some of the revisions and additions to the remainder of the volume are as follows:

Chapters 1 to 5 have each been revised to include new system and process flow diagrams, plus new discussion content on commissioning, building automation, maintenance management, sustainability/green design, security, and various systems (e.g., underfloor air distribution, chilled beams).
Chapter 7, Combined Heat and Power Systems, formerly entitled Cogeneration Systems and Engine and Turbine Drives, was reorganized, as well as updated for new technology.
Chapter 11, District Heating and Cooling, has new guidance on construction cost considerations, central plants, and distribution systems.
Chapter 12, Hydronic Heating and Cooling, has revised text and figures on all aspects of system design, including design procedure, water temperatures, heat transfer, distribution losses, constant- and variable-speed pumping, sizing control valves, and terminal units.
Chapter 18, Duct Construction, has new guidance for installation of flexible ducts.
Chapter 19, Room Air Distribution Equipment, was reorganized to coordinate with its companion chapter in HVAC Applications, with added content on equipment for stratified and partially stratified systems.
Chapter 24, Mechanical Dehumidifiers and Related Components, has new content on installation and service, indoor pool dehumidifiers, and application considerations for various equipment types.
Chapter 30, Automatic Fuel-Burning Systems, extensively reorganized and revised, contains updated information on new technology and code requirements.
Chapter 31, Boilers, has new material on condensing boilers, burner types, and operating and safety controls.
Chapter 32, Furnaces, has been thoroughly revised to reflect new technology and code requirements.
Chapter 34, Chimney, Vent, and Fireplace Systems, has been reorganized for clarity and has new content on designing fireplaces and their chimneys.
Chapter 36, Solar Energy Equipment, has been reorganized and has new content on photovoltaic systems and testing/rating.
Chapter 37, Compressors, has been reorganized and has updates on bearings and variable-speed drive technology.
Chapter 38, Condensers, contains revised content on air-cooled condensers, particularly on type descriptions, heat transfer, pressure drop, testing/rating, and installation and maintenance.
Chapter 40, Evaporative Air Cooling Equipment, has a rewritten section on indirect coolers.
Chapter 42, Liquid-Chilling Systems, has new discussion on both refrigerant selection and variable-flow chilled-water systems, as well as new and improved figures.
Chapter 44, Motors, Motor Controls, and Variable-Speed Drives, has updates for new technology and codes.
Chapter 48, Unitary Air Conditioners and Heat Pumps, has new content on multisplit units, variable-refrigerant-flow (VRF) equipment, certification, and sustainability.
This volume is published, both as a bound print volume and in electronic format on a CD-ROM, in two editions: one using inch-pound (I-P) units of measurement, the other using the International System of Units (SI).

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Pipeline Construction

2008-08-28T07:39:00.000+07:00

PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION

Pipeline Design Codes
Most of the codes of practice are derivatives from studies conducted by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASMIE) and the American Standards Association (ASA), which later changed its name to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).

The UK Pipeline Safety Code is Part 6 of the IP Model code of Safe Practice in the Petroleum industry, which includes and takes note of the British Standard Code of Practice for Pipelines, BS CP 2010, which relates to pipeline construction in the UK.

Gas distribution lines up to a working pressure of 70 bar are adequately covered by the Institution of Gas Engineers’ series “Recommendations on Transmission and Distribution Practice. The IIP Code does not claim to be a design handbook and does not replace the need for appropriate experience and engineering judgment.

The IP Code of Practice sets forth general requirements for the safe design, construction and operation of pipelines for the conveyance of petroleum (crude oil and liquid products) and gas (natural gas and gaseous products).
It specifies considerations for pipe materials, flanges fittings and valves etc.

Submarine pipelines are designed to internationally accepted codes, such as in Norway the Det Norske Veritas “Rules for the Design, Construction and Inspection of Submarine Pipelines and Pipeline Risers”.
By definition pipelines normally start at the scraper launcher and ends at the scraper receiver or slug catcher.
It should be remembered that wherever national codes are more stringent than internationally accepted codes, the national codes must take precedence.

Grades of Steel
The pipe from which flow lines and pipelines are constructed is known in the oil industry as “1ine pipe”. As with casing and tubing, line pipe is manufactured from different grades or strengths of steel and in different wall thickness to enable economical as well as safe design. The physical properties of the various grades of steels used in the manufacture of most of the line pipe of importance to the industry are set out in API Standards.

The requirement for high pressure, large diameter, cross-country, oil and gas transmission lines developed a need for a high strength, field weldable steel. As a result, API grades X-42 through X-65 with yield strengths of 42,000 psi to 65,000 psi were developed. These higher strength steels are available for use under the requirements of the IP Code.
The higher working pressures resulting from the use of the higher strength steels enable a substantial saving in steel tonnage and can be economical in use.

Submarine pipelines are subject to external stresses not considered so far in our discussions. In addition to hydrostatic pressure due to immersion depth, the motion of the sea introduces currents and swell and possibly thermal stress. During and after laying greater consideration must be given to the weight and curvature of the pipe.

Process of Manufacture
Three different processes are used to manufacture pipe that is used for line pipe. The properties and capabilities of the pipe vary with the type of process used.

Seamless Line Pipe
Seamless pipe is generally the industries first choice for high-pressure flow lines and pipelines.
Seamless pipe is a wrought steel tube without a welded seam, manufactured by hot working steel and, if necessary, subsequently cold finished to produce the desired properties.

Generally speaking, seamless pipe is preferred by the oil industry for use in well flow lines and other high pressure lines, although welded pipe described below is similarly used for high pressure lines in larger sizes where seamless pipe is not available. Availability is limited to a maximum diameter of about 20inches because of the process of forming seamless pipe.

Furnace Welded Line Pipe
About the only type of furnace welded pipe available today is manufactured by the continuous welding, butt-weld process.

In the butt-weld process, pipe is manufactured with one longitudinal seam formed by mechanical pressure to make the welded junction after the entire steel strip from which the tube is formed has been heated to proper welding temperature.

The cost of the CW, continuous weld, butt weld line pipe is 15 to 20% lower than Grade B seamless or electric weld line pipe.

Electric Welded Line Pipe
Electric welded pipe has one longitudinal seam formed by electric flash welding, electric resistance welding or electric induction welding without the addition of extraneous metal. There is probably more pipe manufactured by the electric weld process than any other method because of the low initialinvestment for the equipment and the adaptability to different wall thicknesses. Most electric weld line pipe is not fully normalised after welding. Some is normalised in the weld zone only. Therefore, there is a heat runout zone on each side of the weld resulting in non-uniformity of hardness and grain structure.

Like furnace weld, electric weld is not recommended for use where internal corrosion is expected.
Electric weld is the same price as seamless when made from the same grade of steel with the same wall thickness.

Pipe Diameters
Steel pipes are referred to according to their nominal inside diameter up to 12 in. Pipes of above 12 diameter are usually identified by their outside diameter (OD). All classes (weights) of pipe of a given nominal size have the same OD, the extra thickness for different weights being on the inside.

Pipe End Connections
Flow lines and pipelines are normally constructed with plain-end or bevelled and pipe ready for field welding. Where occasionally flanged connections are required, for example where flanged spools or block valves are fitted, the flanges will generally be specified raised face to ANSI B16.5, or its equivalent BS 1560, with weld-neck ends.

Pipe Coating and Protection
1 Land Pipelines
Before being trenched and buried, the pipe is normally cleaned and coated with a1ayer of bitumen, fusion-bonded epoxy or other type material for external corrosion protection. Many types of coating, some proprietary, are available and the type of soil influences the choice of coating. The coating is normally wrapped with tape for physical protection of the coating during subsequent operations.

2 Submarine Pipelines
Subsea immersion causes the pipeline to be exposed to a corrosive environment that is normally very severe. Pipe coating must be applied under stringent conditions with good mechanical strength to withstand the subsequent laying operations. Concrete coating is frequently necessary to provide negative buoyancy. Trenching may be necessary as dictated by the authorities for coastal areas, inland swamp areas, shallow waters and shipping lanes.

Pipe Work

2008-08-26T14:18:00.003+07:00

PIPE WORK

Applications
Pipework is extensively used throughout an offshore installation to move fluids and gases from one location to another. It can generally be classified into the following three broad groupings:

1. Process
Used to transport the produced fluids and gases between processing units on the platform.

2. Service
Used to convey air, water, etc. to where it is needed for processing, life support and other services or utility functions.

3. Transportation
Usually large diameter pipelines as used to carry the production products from installation to installation or from the field to the onshore terminal.

Pumps and compressors are used to drive fluids and gases along pipes and valves to route and control the various substances and ensure that they are correctly segregated from each other.
The contents of the pipework are carried at widely varying temperatures, pressures and flow rates and,therefore, different types of pipework and associated equipment are required.
Because of the inherent danger in carrying the oil and gas associated with offshore operations, the design,installation, testing and inspection of certain pipework is ngourously controlled to exacting standards, so that leakage and bursting do not occur.

Design Features

1. Pipe Materials
Pipes are made in a number of materials, the particular one chosen being dependent upon pressure,temperature, resistance to corrosion, cost etc.
The most commonly used is carbon steel and for process work, this is normally of seamless construction.
It is strong, weldable, ductile, and usually cheaper than pipe made from other materials. It can stand temperatures up to 750ºF and is used whenever it can stand the duty required of it.

Other metals and alloys are sometimes used although they tend to be more expensive. Traditionally, corer and copper alloys were used for instrument lines although they have largely been replaced by stainless steel. They are still used for heat transfer equipment because of their high thermal conductivity.
Pipe can be lined or coated with materials such as vitreous substances, to provide resistance to chemical attack, corrosion, etc.

GRP (Glass Reinforced Plastic) is commonly used offshore on smaller service/potable water lines.

2. Pipe Sizes
The wall thickness of pipe used is determined by the pipework designer, taking into account the internal pressure, mechanical stresses to which it is subjected (i.e. dead/live loads and expansion stresses), the corrosion allowance and the safety factor to be applied. Wall thickness is determined in the ANSI system by ‘Schedule Number”, Schedule 40 being the most generally used.

Pipe size is determined by the design requirements of flow rate and head loss. Pipe sizes are identified by the Nominal Pipe Size (NPS). It is common practice to refer to Nominal Pipe Sizes 0-12 inches diameter as Nominal Bore (NB) and greater than 12 inches diameter as Outside Diameter (OD).

3. Methods of Joining Pipe
There are three main methods of joining pipes together and attaching fittings to them. Lines of 2 inch or larger are usually butt-welded, this being the most economic, leak-proof method. Smaller lines are usually joined by socket-welding or screwing.

Where larger diameter piping is required to join up with flanged vessels, valves and other equipment, or where the line has to be opened for periodic cleaning, bolted flange joints are used instead of butt-welding.
These are described more fully later.

Butt-Welded Systems Fittings

Elbows: These are used for making 45º or 90º changes in the direction of the pipe run. Normally used are “long radius”, in which the centre line radius of
curvature is equal to 1 1/2 times the nominal pipe size (MPS). Also available are “short radius” in which the centre line radius of curvature is equal to the NI’S.

Reducing Elbow
This makes a change in line size together with a change in direction.

Return
A return makes a 180 change in direction and is used in the construction of heating coils, etc.

Bends
Bends are made from straight pipe and common bending radii are 3 and 5 times the NI’S (indicated by 3R and SR respectively).

Reducer
This joins a larger pipe to a smaller one.

Flange
REFER THIS ALSO
Is a welding-neck flange (the most common type) and a slip-on flange. Flanges are fitted to the ends of pipes, valves, vessels, etc. to enable them to be connected by bolting.

Tee
REFER THIS ALSOA tee is used to make a 90 branch from a main pipe run. If the branch is smaller than the main run, a reducing tee is used.

Socket-Welded and Screwed Systems
Their uses are similar to those described for butt-welded fittings.

Flanged Joints
As described earlier, flanged joints are used whenever the pipes, valves, vessels, fittings etc. require to be connected together by bolting for ease of dismantling and reassembly.
This section describes types of flanged joints, which are commonly encountered.

Flat-Face
Most commonly used for mating with non-steel flanges on the bodies of pumps, valves, etc. The gaskets used (see Gaskets below) have an outside diameter equal to that of the flange itself. This ensures an even pressure distribution across the flange and reduces the risk of cracking of cast-iron or bronze flange on tightening or from plant vibration.

Raised Face
The raised face is the most common type of flange, in which the gasket covers only the raised faces.

Ring-Type Joint (RTJ)
This is a more expensive type of joint, but it is the best type for high temperature, high pressure and corrosive use

Gaskets
Gaskets are used to make a tight leak-proof seal between two joint surfaces. For pipe flanges, the common types of gaskets are the full-face and ring types which are used for flat-face and raised-face flanges respectively.
Gaskets are made from compressed asbestos, asbestos-filled metal (spiral-wound) and other materials dependent on the conditions to which they are subjected. Spiral-wound gaskets separate cleanly and can often be re-used.
They are useful, therefore, if the joint has to be frequently disconnected. The finish on the joint faces differs according to the type of gasket to be used. A “serrated” face is used with asbestos gaskets and a “smooth” face with spiral-wound ones.

Line Isolation and Blinding
Frequently, a completely leak-proof means of stopping the flow in a line has to be made. This may be because:
• The line, or a piece of equipment in it, has to be isolated to allow maintenance work to be carried out;
• A change in the process requires that the line be closed.

Valves do not offer complete security, as there may always be some degree of leakage and therefore, the line is closed by one of the following methods:
Spectacle Plate and Line Blind: The spectacle plate can be changed over quickly without disturbing the pipework and gives immediate visual evidence of whether the line is open or blinded. it is generally preferable to the simple line blind which is only used where frequent changing is not required.

Line Blind Valve: This allows a line to be quickly and simply blinded by a process operator. There are many types, but a typical one, a spool type line blind.

Removable Spool and Blind Flanges: This method involves removing a complete section of the line between two flanges (the spool) and fitting blind flanges to close the two ends of the line. This gives a very positive visual indication that the line is closed. Blind flanges are used to close any pipe end, vessel entry, etc.

Pipe Supports
Methods of supporting pipework vary greatly, but a selection of some of the more common is covered in this section.

Support: The term “support” refers to any device used to carry the weight of the pipework. Supports are usually made from structural steel.

Hanger: A hanger is a particular type of support by which pipework is suspended from a structure.
Hangers are usually adjustable for height

Anchor: An anchor is a rigid support, which prevents transmission of movement along pipework.
Tie: An arrangement of rods, bars, etc. to restrict movement of pipework.
Dummy Leg: An extension piece of pipe or steel section welded to an elbow.
Guide or Shoe: A means of allowing a pipe to move along its length whilst restricting its lateral movements.

Operation
4.2.6.1 Checks During Operation
The operation of a piping system is dictated by the operation of the equipment, which it connects. Nevertheless, care must be taken at all times to ensure that

• The piping is not operated beyond its design range of pressure and temperature;
• All joints are checked regularly for leaks and any leaks discovered are reported immediately;
• The piping is correctly isolated and purged, if necessary, before any maintenance work is performed on it;
• Line markings are clearly visible and re-made if not;
• Any abnormal vibration, damage, missing supports, etc are reported immediately.

Maintenance and Inspection
Legislative and other statutory requirements dictate the type and frequency of maintenance and inspection required on piping systems installed on offshore Installations. This maintenance and inspection is necessary to ensure that the Certificate of Fitness of the installation in question remains valid. The responsibility for ensuring that these requirements are met does not lie with the process operator.
However, he will be involved in isolating. purging, etc. at the time the maintenance and inspection are carried out.

Pipeline

2008-08-26T08:56:00.001+07:00

PIPELINES

Introduction
Pipelines are the most common means of transporting oil or gas.A pipeline is like any other flowline. The main differences are that pipelines are long and continuously welded, they have a minimum number of curves, they have no sharp bends, and they are most often either buried or otherwise inaccessible due to their location over the majority of their length.

These differences mean that small sections of pipeline are not easily removed for maintenance and consequently great care is taken to prevent problems arising in the first place. A pipeline is extremely expensive to lay, and in the case of offshore pipelines, costs in the order of several million pounds per subsea mile have been encountered.

Maintenance on pipelines is also expensive but this expenditure is necessary since, regardless of the expense, pipelines frequently form the most efficient and cost-effective method of transporting the quantifies of oil or gas produced. Pipeline sharing agreements may result in the flow from a number of oil fields being transported through a single pipeline. A problem in a pipeline of this type can mean the shut-down of all of these fields with a resulting operating loss of several million pounds per day.

This situation can be further aggravated for gas production to gas consumer companies where the producing company can not only lose operating revenue but can incur fines for failing to fulfill contractual obligations.

Pipeline Design

1. General
When designing a pipeline, the engineer considers the following factors:
• The physical and chemical properties of the fluid, or to pumped through the pipeline;
• The maximum volume of fluid that will be pumped through the pipeline at any time during the life of current and future developments likely to be served by the pipeline.
• The nature of the environment through which the pipeline is going to traverse.
• The required delivery pressure.

More specifically the engineer considers
• Pipe diameter required. (The larger the diameter of the pipeline, the more fluid can be moved through it, assuming other variables such as pump capacity are fixed.)
• Pipe length. (The greater the length of a segment of pipeline, the greater the total pressure drop. Pressure drop can be the same per unit of length for a given size and type of pipe but total pressure drop increases with length.)
• Specific gravity and density of the fluid to be transported, (The specific gravity and density of the transported fluid will affect the potential amount of mass flow available.)
• Compressibility. (Because most liquids are only slightly compressible, this term is not usually significant in calculating liquids pipeline capacity at normal operating conditions. In gas and gas liquids (mixtures of methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc, transported as a liquid) pipeline design, however, it is necessary to include a term in many design calculations to account for the fact that gases deviate from laws describing ideal gas behaviour under conditions other than standard or base conditions. This term, supercompressibility factor, is very significant at high temperatures and pressures. If in the pipeline, pressure is likely to be in the order of 1000 to 2000 psig then this term must be included.)
• Operating temperatures and ambient temperatures: (Temperature affects pipeline capacity both directly and indirectly. In natural gas pipelines, the lower the operating temperature, the greater the capacity, assuming all other variables are fixed.
Operating temperature also can affect other terms in equations used to calculate the capacity of both liquids and natural gas pipelines. Viscosity, for example, varies with temperature. Designing a pipeline for heavy (viscous) crude is one case in which it is necessary to know operating temperaturesaccurately to calculate pipeline capacity. The possibility of water freezing and of hydrate formation in gas pipelines are other temperature considerations.
• Viscosity: (The property of a fluid that resists flow or relative motion between adjacent parts of the fluid is viscosity. It is an important term in calculating line size and horsepower requirement when designing liquid pipelines).
• Pour Point: (The lowest temperature at which an oil will pour, or flow, when cooled under specific test conditions is the pour point. oils can be pumped below their pour points, but the design and operation of a pipeline under these conditions presents special problems.)
• Vapour Pressure. (The pressure that holds a volatile liquid in equilibrium with its vapour at a given temperature is its vapour pressure; when page 73 determined for petroleum products under specific test conditions and using specific procedures it is called the RVP (Reid Vapour Pressure). Vapour pressure is an especially important design criterion when handling volatile petroleum products such as propane or butane.

The minimum pressure in the pipeline must be high enough to maintain these fluids in their liquid state.
Reynolds Number, which is a dimensionless number, which is used to describe the type of flow exhibited by a flowing fluid. In streamlined (or laminar) flow, the molecules move parallel to the axis of flow. In turbulent flow, the molecules move back and forward across the flow axis. Other types of flow are also possible and the Reynolds number can be used to determine which types of flow are likely to occur under specified conditions. In turn, the type of flow exhibited by a fluid affects pressure drop in the pipeline. Strictly speaking. a Reynolds Number below 1000 describes streamlined flow.

At Reynolds Numbers between 1000 and 2000 flow is unstable. At Reynolds Numbers greater than 2000 flow is turbulent These figures are not always used. In general usage, how is considered laminar for R<2000,>4000.
Friction Factor. (A variety of friction factors are used in pipeline calculations. They are determined empirically and are related to the roughness of the inside pipe wall)

This is not a complete list but represents the basic parameters used. Terms are interdependent; for example, operation pressure depends on pressure drop, which depends on flow rate, which in turn is dictated by allowable pressure drop.

Several pressure terms are used in pipeline design and operation. Barometric pressure is the value of the atmospheric pressure above a perfect vacuum. A perfect vacuum cannot exist on the earth, but it makes a convenient reference point for pressure measurement.

Absolute pressure is the pressure of a pipeline or vessel above a perfect vacuum and is abbreviated bara. Gauge pressure is the pressure measured in a pipeline or vessel above atmospheric pressure and is abbreviated barg. Standard atmospheric pressure is usualIy considered to be the head pressure of 760 mm of mercury, but atmospheric pressure varies with elevation above sea level. Many contracts for the purchase of natural gas, for instance, specify that the standard, or base, pressure will be other than 760mm/kg.

Formulas describing the flow of fluids in a pipe are derived from Bernoulli’s theorem and are modified to account for losses due to friction. Bernoulli’s theorem expresses the application of the law of conservation of energy to the flow of fluids in a conduit To describe the actual flow of gases and liquids properly, howeyer, solutions based on Bernoulli’s theorem require the use of coefficients that must be determined experimentally.

As a basic rule, the amount of flow along a pipeline (or across any restriction) will be a function of the differential pressure. The basic equation is:

%Q = √% Dp x 10
where:
0= Flow (In %)
Dp = Differential pressure (in %)

The theoretical equation for fluid flow neglects friction and assumes no energy is added to the systems by pumps or compressors. Of course, in the design and operation of a pipeline, friction losses are very important, and pumps and compressors are required to overcome those losses. So practical pipeline design equations depend on empirical coefficients that have been determined during years of research and testing.
The basic theory of fluid flow does not change. But modifications continue to be made in coefficient as more information is available, and the application of various forms of basic formulas continues to be refined. The use of computers for solving pipeline design problems has also enhanced the accuracy and inflexibility possible in pipeline design.

2. Liquids Pipelines
In the design of liquids and natural gas pipelines, pressure drop, flow capacity and pumping or compression horsepower required are key calculations. The design of a liquids pipeline is similar in concept to the design of a natural gas pipeline. In both cases, a delivery pressure and the volume the pipeline must handle are known. The allowable working pressure of the pipe can be determined using the pipe size and type and specified safety factors.
In most pipeline calculations, assumptions must be made initially. For instance, a line size may be assumed in order to determine maximum operating pressure and the pressure drop in a given length of pipe for a given flow volume. If the resulting pressure drop, when added to the known delivery pressure exceeds the allowable working pressure, a larger pipe size must usually be chosen.

It may be possible to change the capacity and spacing of booster pumping stations to stay within operating pressure. But in the simplest case, if the calculation yields an operating pressure greater than allowed, a larger pipe size must be selected and the calculation repeated.

It is apparent that many options are available in even a moderately complex pipeline system. But today’s computer programs for pipeline design can analyze many variables and many options in a short time, greatly easing the design process.

3. Pressure Drop
An equation for the flow of liquids in a pipe was developed by Darcy in the early 18th Century and the equations, formulae and standards defined by Darçy are still valid today.
The Darcy equation can be derived mathematically (except for a friction factor which must be determined by experiment) and can be used to calculate for laminar and turbulent flow of liquid in a pipe.

4. Valves And Fittings
In addition to the pressure loss due to fluid friction with the walls of the pipeline, valves and fittings also contribute to overall system pressure loss. The pressure loss due to a single valve in several thousand feet of straight piping will be insignificant but in a pumping station, for example, where many valves exist and many changes in flow direction occur, pressure loss in valves and fittings is important Pressure loss in valves and fittings is made up of both the friction loss within the valve or fitting itself and the additional loss upstream and downstream of the fitting above that which would have occurred in the absence of the fitting. Calculation of the pressure loss in a valve or fitting is based on experimental data. One approach is the use of a resistance factor for a given valve or fitting. The resistance coefficient is normally treated as aconstant for a given valve or fitting under all flow conditions.

Another term used in determining the pressure drop through valves and fittings is the flow coefficient, Cv The flow coefficient of a valve is the flow of water at 6OºF, in gal/min, at a pressure drop of one psi across the valve. The flow coefficients of any other liquid can be calculated using the relation of itsdensity to that of water.

5. Heavy Crudes
Some crudes with very high pour points or high wax contents that require pipelines of special design Pipelining such crudes can be especially troublesome offshore where heat loss to the water is great and any heat added to the crude before it enters the pipeline is dissipated within a short distanceif a conventional pipeline is used. If the crude cools, excessive wax deposits in the pipeline can lower operating efficiency. In cases of extremely viscous crudes, flow can even be halted if the temperature is allowed to fail too low. Not only is the baiting of flow a problem, but restarting flow after such an occurrence can be difficult. To handle these special crudes, pipelines have been successfully installed and operated simply by insulating the pipelines, but other approaches include:
• Heating the crude to a high temperature at the inlet to the pipeline, allowing it to reach its n destination before cooling below the pour point (The pipeline may or may not be insulated);
• Pumping the crude at a temperature below the pour point using high pressure pumps;
• Adding a hydrocarbon dilutant such as a less waxy crude or a light distillate;
• Injecting water to form a layer between the pipe wall and the crude;
• Processing the crude before pipelining to change the wax crystal structure and reduce pour point and viscosity.
• Mixing water with the crude to form an emulsion; Processing the crude before pipelining to change the wax crystal structure and reduce pour point and viscosity;
• Heating both crude and pipeline by steam tracing or electrical heating;
• Injecting wax solvents such as benzene or toluene.

A combination of these methods can also be used and the choice of method will depend upon the physical properties of the crude and the economics of its production.

If waxy crude is pumped below its pour point, more pumping energy is required and, if pumping is stopped, more energy will be required to put the crude in motion again than was required to keep it flowing.

When flow is stopped wax crystals form, causing the crude to gel in the pipeline.The wax in crude which is being pumped at temperatures above its pour point will form cohesive lattice structures if it is allowed to cool down to below its pour point whilst stationary. Experiments have shown that restart pressures can be five to ten times higher for a pipeline that was above the pour point and cooled after shut-down than for one that was below its pour point before shut-down.

6. Gas Pipelines
Several formulae can be used to calculate the flow of gas in a pipeline. These formulas account for the effects of pressure, temperature, pipe diameter, pipe length, specific gravity, pipe roughness and gas deviation.
The Darcy equation can also be used in flow calculations involving gases but it must be done with care and restrictions on its use are recommended. If, for instance, pressure drop in the line is large relative to the inlet pressure, the Darcy equation is not recommended. Because this is often the case and because other restrictions also apply to its use in gas flow calculations, other more practical equations are commonly used for gas flow calculations.

7. Allowable Operating Pressure
An important pipeline design calculation is the maximum pressure at which a given size, grade and weight of pipe may operate.Maximum operating pressure determines how much a pipeline may carry . Other factors being fixed and depends on the physical and chemical properties of the pipe steel. Since standard pipe grades, sizes and weights are normally used, the maximum operating pressure can usually be obtained from tablescontained in recognised specifications.

8. Looping
This is the term used when laying a pipeline parallel to an existing line in order to increase the total capacity throughput.

9. Two-phase Flow
The combined flow of oil and gas in a pipeline presents many design and operational difficulties notpresent in single phase liquid or vapour flow. Frictional pressure drops are harder to estimate.
Liquid is likely to gather at low points in the pipeline and reduce the pipeline capacity to a point when slugs of liquid are pushed ahead by the gas.

The movement of large liquid slugs along the pipeline can cause additional pipeline stresses and the pipeline terminal facilities must be designed to receive such volumes of liquid by provision of large, specially designed vessels or energy absorbing pipework, known as slug-catchers.
The type of flow in a pipe is known as its flow regime. We have already come across laminar and turbulent flow regimes. These are single phase flow regimes and which phase will exist can be found by calculating the Reynolds number.

Pipelines are seldom horizontal, as they have to follow the undulations of the seabed or the countryside, and often have vertical sections as they rise to join platforms or enter process streams.

In view of this, flows regimes can exist which are considerably more complex than those already discussed.
The key difference between single-phase flow and two-phase flow is that it is much more difficult to determine pressure drops for two-phase flow. This is complicated if you consider that a difference in incline of several degrees, never mind 90º; can change entirely the nature of the flow regime.

Undulating terrain will generally not be a problem for single-phase pipelines; however, it can materially affect pressure drop in two-phase pipelines if there are a large number of. rises and falls, which the pipeline must cross.
Some two-phase regimes are caused by liquid condensation or fall-out from the gas due to reducing temperature and pressure along the length of the pipeline. For onshore gas lines liquid knock-outs can be provided at intervals such that liquids can be drained off by blow-down of the line.

Well flow lines often work in a two-phase regime, particularly because the well fluids usually contain both oil and gas and there may be no facility at the wellhead (E.g. at sub-sea wells) prior to the fluid reaching the gathering station (or platform).

Despite the problems associated with the prediction of two-phase estimates, more and more pipelines are being designed for such flow systems.

For example when hydrocarbon condensate is separated from the gas at offshore platforms, it is invariably spiked back into the gas for transport to the shore in the pipeline. This is mainly because te economics would not support a separate line for condensate sales.

Several empirical flow patterns have been presented that determine vapour/liquid flow as a function of fluid proportions and flow rates. Diagrams of these flow patterns are shown Figure.

Care should be taken in the interpretation of these diagrams, as the regime boundaries of bubble, slug, annular, mist and wave conditions are strongly affected by pipe inclination. Even very low pipe inclination of one or two degrees can cause considerable movement of the regime boundaries and, inaddition, adjustment has been observed due to fluid pressure, pipe diameter and surface tension.

In both vertical and horizontal directions, the avoidance of slug flow is desirable. Slug flow might possibly be avoided by choice of a smaller pipe diameter. This will increase fluid velocities and reduce the pipeline liquid inventory.

Liquid Pipe Flow: Pressure Drop Calculation

2008-08-26T08:21:00.004+07:00

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: PRESSURE DROP CALCULATION

Flow Of Liquid & Compressed Gases Through Circular Pipe
A common engineering problem to be able to determine the losses (analysis), or velocity (prediction) or the conduit size (design) of a piping system. Flow in a pipe is characterized by 7 parameters: Fluid viscosity & specific gravity, Pipe internal diameter, roughness & length, Flow rate/velocity & head loss/pressure drop. Based on which of the parameters are known, four types of computational problems are identified: namely the Calculation of i) Pressure drop, ii) Flow rate, iii) the Pipe internal diameter and iv) Pipe length. This task is accomplished by appropriate rearrangement, substitution and iterative solution of the following Equations:

Reynolds Number Re=VD/ν

where
Re = Reynolds Number

Q = average flow rate

V = average flow velocity

γ = fluid specific gravity

ν = kinetic viscosity, centistokes

D = pipe inside diameter

L = pipe length

ε = absolute internal pipe roughness

ƒ = friction factor

ΔZ = change in elevation

h = pressure head

hf = head loss due to pipe friction

Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc(length equivalent)

P = pressure

g = gravitation acceleration

BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Menon ES; Piping Calculations Manual; McGraw Hill, New York, 2005.

* Hicks TG; Mechanical Engineering Formulas, Pocket Guide; McGraw Hill, New York, 2003, Chapter 10.

* Menon ES; Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics; Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 2004.

* Hicks TG (Editor); Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering Calculations; McGraw Hill, New York, 1998, Section 8.

Liquid Pipe Flow: Pipe Length Calculation

2008-08-26T08:00:00.004+07:00

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: PIPE LENGTH CALCULATION

Flow Of Liquid & Compressed Gases Through Circular Pipe
A common engineering problem to be able to determine the losses (analysis), or velocity (prediction) or the conduit size (design) of a piping system. Flow in a pipe is characterized by 7 parameters: Fluid viscosity & specific gravity, Pipe internal diameter, roughness & length, Flow rate/velocity & head loss/pressure drop. Based on which of the parameters are known, four types of computational problems are identified: namely the Calculation of i) Pressure drop, ii) Flow rate, iii) the Pipe internal diameter and iv) Pipe length. This task is accomplished by appropriate rearrangement, substitution and iterative solution of the following Equations:

Reynolds Number Re=VD/ν

where
Re = Reynolds Number
Q = average flow rate
V = average flow velocity
γ = fluid specific gravity
ν = kinetic viscosity, centistokes
D = pipe inside diameter
L = pipe length
ε = absolute internal pipe roughness
ƒ = friction factor
ΔZ = change in elevation
h = pressure head
hf = head loss due to pipe friction
Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc(length equivalent)
P = pressure
g = gravitation acceleration

BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Menon ES; Piping Calculations Manual; McGraw Hill, New York, 2005.
* Hicks TG; Mechanical Engineering Formulas, Pocket Guide; McGraw Hill, New York, 2003, Chapter 10.
* Menon ES; Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics; Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 2004.
* Hicks TG (Editor); Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering Calculations; McGraw Hill, New York, 1998, Section 8.

Liquid Pipe Flow: Pipe Diameter Calculation

2008-08-25T08:30:00.002+07:00

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: PIPE DIAMETER CALCULATION

Reynolds Number Re=VD/ν

where
Re = Reynolds Number

Q = average flow rate

V = average flow velocity

γ = fluid specific gravity

ν = kinetic viscosity, centistokes

D = pipe inside diameterL = pipe length

ε = absolute internal pipe roughness

ƒ = friction factorΔZ = change in elevation

h = pressure head

hf = head loss due to pipe friction

Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc. (length equivalent)

P = pressure

g = gravitation acceleration

BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Menon ES; Piping Calculations Manual; McGraw Hill, New York, 2005.

* Hicks TG; Mechanical Engineering Formulas, Pocket Guide; McGraw Hill, New York, 2003, Chapter 10.

* Menon ES; Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics; Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 2004.

* Hicks TG (Editor); Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering Calculations; McGraw Hill, New York, 1998, Section 8.

Liquid Pipe Flow: Flow Rte Calculation

2008-08-25T08:20:00.002+07:00

LIQUID PIPE FLOW: FLOW RATE CALCULATION

Reynolds Number Re=VD/ν

where
Re = Reynolds Number

Q = average flow rate

V = average flow velocity

γ = fluid specific gravity

ν = kinetic viscosity, centistokes

D = pipe inside diameter

L = pipe length

ε = absolute internal pipe roughness

ƒ = friction factor

ΔZ = change in elevation

h = pressure head

hf = head loss due to pipe friction

Lm = head losses due to fittings, valves, etc. (length equivalent)

P = pressure

g = gravitation acceleration

BIBLIOGRAPHY
* Menon ES; Piping Calculations Manual; McGraw Hill, New York, 2005.
* Hicks TG; Mechanical Engineering Formulas, Pocket Guide; McGraw Hill, New York, 2003, Chapter 10.

* Menon ES; Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics; Marcel Dekker, Inc, New York, 2004.

* Hicks TG (Editor); Handbook Of Mechanical Engineering Calculations; McGraw Hill, New York, 1998, Section 8.

Fouling

2008-08-25T08:12:00.000+07:00

FOULING

The deposition of paraffin, salt or scale on flowline wells can materially reduce the cross-sectional area of the pipe and severely restrict flow.

Paraffin can usually be removed by scraping or by pumping hot oil or condensate through the lines. Salt and/or scale similarly may require removal by a pipeline scraper pig, or in some cases by chemical treatment. These factors should be carefully considered when designing and sizing the flowlines. If either of these factors are suspected, it may be wise to weight the estimated cleaning frequency with the cost of installing slightly larger pipelines.

Flanges

2008-08-25T07:59:00.004+07:00

FLANGES

Introduction
Flanges are normally used to connect sections of pipe, valves, vessels or other fittings by forming a seal with either a ring or flat type gasket. They are assembled with stud bolts, which when tightened, force the two flange faces towards each other on the gasket to form a pressure tight seal. Flanges in the oil industry are classified according to their construction, pressure rating and diameter.

The two classifications of flanges are:
1. ASA (ANSI) American Nation Standards Institute.
2. API American Petroleum Institute
4.3.2 API Classification of Flanges

There are three common types of API flanges: API 2000,3000,5000 and there are two high pressure series, API 10,000 and 15,000. The number of the series indicated corresponds to the maximum working pressure expressed in psi at a temperature of l00ºF.

This maximum working pressure is affected by temperature। The maximum working pressure of the flange will be reduced by a factor of 1.8% for each 50ºF increase in temperature above 100ºF to a maximum of 450’F. The following table gives the maximum working pressure as a function of temperature.

Pressure Ratings

1. Test And Working Pressures
The hydrostatic test pressure is equal to twice the maximum working pressures for flanges of diameter below or equal to 14 inches. The test pressure is equal to 1.5 times the maximum working pressure for flanges of diameter equal to or greater than 16 inches.

2. ASA Flanges
With the exception of the ASA 150 series, the number corresponds to the maximum working pressure of the flange in psi at a temperature of 85OºF for carbon steel flanges.
To obtain the working pressure of the flange at temperature from –20 to+ 100ºF, the number is multiplied by 2.4.

For example:
ASA 300 Max WP = 2.4 x 300 = 720psi
ASA 900 Max WP = 2.24 x 900 =2160psi

The following table gives the working pressures of all flanges in this classification. The hydrostatic test pressure is equal to 1.5 times the working pressure at 100ºF.

4. Flange Physical Characteristics
To avoid any confusion when describing or ordering flanges, the following information should be given:
1. Type ASA or API;
2. Description of connection:
a) Weld neck flange
b) Slip on welding flange
c) Threaded flange
d) Blind flange.
3. Nominal diameter;
4. Number in ASA or API classification;
5. Type of face and gasket;
6. Bore if necessary;
7. Type of steel used for manufacture.

5. Flange Make-Up
To ensure that the flange will form a good seal, care should be taken when making them up. The studs should first be made hand tight with the faces of the flanges parallel to each other. The studs should then be gradually tightened in the sequence shown in the diagram below.

6. Line Pipe
Line pipe is required by the oil and gas industry to convey oil, gas, water, chemicals, etc. in its operations.

The API with cooperation of the American Gas Association has developed specifications meeting the needs of the oil and gas industry for steel and wrought-iron line pipe and published these in API standards 5L and 5LX. These provide standard dimensions, strengths and performance properties and the required thread gauging practice to ensure complete interchangeability.

Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers

2008-08-22T08:12:00.003+07:00

Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers
Ebook Title: Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers
Author: Jonathan T. Ricketts, M. Kent Loftin, Frederick S. Merritt

Publisher: McGraw-Hill Professional; 5 edition (December 29, 2003)

Hardcover: 1600 pages

Language: English

ISBN-10: 0071364730

ISBN-13: 978-0071364737

Ebook Description

A revision of the classic reference covering all important principles and techniques needed by practicing civil engineers. The 5th Edition incorporates changes in design and construction practices, especially in design specifications for construction materials, buildings and bridges, safety and health concerns, and the most current codes changes including ACI, AISC, ASTM, NDS for wood structures, etc. Standard Handbook for Civil Engineers, covers systems design, community and regional planning, the latest design methods for buildings, airports, highways, tunnels and bridges. It includes sections on construction equipment, construction management, materials, specifications, structural theory, geotechnical engineering, wood, concrete, steel design and construction.

This book provides code changes from the ACI, ASTM, & AISC, the most up-to-date specifications for wood construction, & recent EPA & OSHA regulations. Presents new methods for nondestructive testing of piles & applications of geosynthetics. Systems requirements: PC with 486 or higher processor, Microsoft Windows 3.1, Windows 95, or NT 3.51 or later, & 16 MB of RAM. CD-ROM. --This text refers to an out of print or unavailable edition of this title.

This new, completely updated, and expanded Fifth Edition features:

- The most recent code changes, including AIC, AISC, ASTM, NDS for Wood Structures, and more

- Current EPA and OSHA regulations

- Additional information on design build delivery systems

- Increased coverage of stormwater runoff

- Over 700 tables, formulas, and drawings to make every explanation and procedure crystal clear

- Sections on construction management; materials specifications; structural theory; wood and concrete, steel design and construction; and much more

- The latest design methods for buildings, airports, highways, tunnels, and bridges

Turn to this one-stop review of the field for simplified solutions to the hundreds of practical problems you face in your day-to-day civil engineering practice.

Ebook Review

Sci-Tech Book News : The fifth edition of this reference in civil engineering features coverage of recent code changes, including AIC, ASTM, and NDS for Wood Structures, and current EPA and OSHA regulations, plus expanded information on design build delivery systems and increased coverage of stormwater runoff. There is also new information on three-dimensional modeling of pile groups, cracking in high strength steel beams, intelligent transportation, and various types of wharf designs. Coverage encompasses fundamentals of civil engineering and the latest changes in design, construction, materials, and equipment in 23 different disciplines including systems design, geotechnical engineering, and community and regional planning. Ricketts is a consulting engineer.

Choice : ...contains much useful information and many equations, tables, and facts needed in many aspects of civil engineering...well written...easy to read...Highly recommended.

From the Back Cover : IF CIVIL ENGINEERS COULD HAVE ONLY ONE REFERENCE BOOK – THIS WOULD BE IT

About the AuthorJonathan T. Ricketts is a Consulting Engineer in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, a registered engineer in several states, and the editor of McGraw-Hill's Building Design and Construction Handbook.
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The Handbook of Highway Engineering

2008-08-22T08:02:00.001+07:00

The Handbook of Highway Engineering
Ebook Title: The Handbook of Highway Engineering

Author: T.F. Fwa

Publisher: CRC; 1 edition (September 28, 2005)

Hardcover: 888 pages

Language: EnglishI

SBN-10: 0849319862

ISBN-13: 978-0849319860

Ebook Description

Modern highway engineering reflects an integrated view of a road system's entire lifecycle, including any potential environmental impacts, and seeks to develop a sustainable infrastructure through careful planning and active management. This trend is not limited to developed nations, but is recognized across the globe. Edited by renowned authority T.F. Fwa, The Handbook of Highway Engineering provides a comprehensive, up-to-date treatment of all aspects of highway development and engineering. Its three sections range from consideration of socio-economic and environmental factors to design, construction, maintenance, and management. Beginning with financing, access management, environmental impacts, road safety, and noise, the book explores the expanded responsibilities of the modern highway engineer as well as the increasing trend toward privatization of project development and financing. The next section considers technical issues in highway and pavement engineering, including materials, new mechanistic-empirical design approaches, and new closed-form solutions for backcalculation as well as deflection and stress computation in multi-slab systems. Rounding out the discussion, the final section examines construction, management, performance evaluation including nondestructive testing, and a chapter devoted to highway asset management. Featuring contributions from eminent experts representing eight countries on four continents, The Handbook of Highway Engineering supplies all of the tools needed to manage the entire integrated process of modern highway development and engineering.

About The Author

T.F. Fwa is the Recipient of the ASCE 2005 Frank M. Masters Transportation Engineering Award For his innovative research on highway and airport pavements and excellence in teaching and professional activities to enhance transportation engineering. --Transportation and Development Institute of ASCE, 2005

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The Electrical Engineering Handbook, 2Ed

2008-08-22T08:00:00.002+07:00

The Electrical Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

Book Description
In 1993, the first edition of The Electrical Engineering Handbook set a new standard for breadth and depth of coverage in an engineering reference work. Now, this classic has been substantially revised and updated to include the latest information on all the important topics in electrical engineering today. Every electrical engineer should have an opportunity to expand his expertise with this definitive guide.In a single volume, this handbook provides a complete reference to answer the questions encountered by practicing engineers in industry, government, or academia. This well-organized book is divided into 12 major sections that encompass the entire field of electrical engineering, including circuits, signal processing, electronics, electromagnetics, electrical effects and devices, and energy, and the emerging trends in the fields of communications, digital devices, computer engineering, systems, and biomedical engineering. A compendium of physical, chemical, material, and mathematical data completes this comprehensive resource. Every major topic is thoroughly covered and every important concept is defined, described, and illustrated. Conceptually challenging but carefully explained articles are equally valuable to the practicing engineer, researchers, and students.A distinguished advisory board and contributors including many of the leading authors, professors, and researchers in the field today assist noted author and professor Richard Dorf in offering complete coverage of this rapidly expanding field. No other single volume available today offers this combination of broad coverage and depth of exploration of the topics. The Electrical Engineering Handbook will be an invaluable resource for electrical engineers for years to come.
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The Electronic Packaging Handbook

2008-08-22T07:55:00.002+07:00

The Electronic Packaging Handbook
Reviewhighly recommendedenough detailprovides essential factural information on the design, manufacturing, and testing of electronic devices and systemsthis book is primarily for engineers and technicians involved in any aspect of design, production, testing, or packaging of electronic productsThe book ties together well with references between chapterswell written and editedeach chapter includes a section of bibliographic references and suggested readings.
--Dave Fish, Pandion Electronics, Inc., SMTnet.com

Book Description
The packaging of electronic devices and systems represents a significant challenge for product designers and managers. Performance, efficiency, cost considerations, dealing with the newer IC packaging technologies, and EMI/RFI issues all come into play. Thermal considerations at both the device and the systems level are also necessary. The Electronic Packaging Handbook, a new volume in the Electrical Engineering Handbook Series, provides essential factual information on the design, manufacturing, and testing of electronic devices and systems. Co-published with the IEEE, this is an ideal resource for engineers and technicians involved in any aspect of design, production, testing or packaging of electronic products, regardless of whether they are commercial or industrial in nature. Topics addressed include design automation, new IC packaging technologies, materials, testing, and safety. Electronics packaging continues to include expanding and evolving topics and technologies, as the demand for smaller, faster, and lighter products continues without signs of abatement. These demands mean that individuals in each of the specialty areas involved in electronics packaging-such as electronic, mechanical, and thermal designers, and manufacturing and test engineers-are all interdependent on each others knowledge. The Electronic Packaging Handbook elucidates these specialty areas and helps individuals broaden their knowledge base in this ever-growing field.
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The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 5Ed

2008-08-19T12:42:00.001+07:00

ISBN: 0070116822
Title: The Properties of Gases and Liquids (5th. Edition)
Author: Bruce E. Poling John M. Prausnitz John P. O'Connell
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Professional
Publication Date: 2000-11-06
Number Of Pages: 768

Must-have reference for processes involving liquids, gases, and mixtures
Reap the time-saving, mistake-avoiding benefits enjoyed by thousands of chemical and process design engineers, research scientists, and educators. Properties of Gases and Liquids, Fifth Edition, is an all-inclusive, critical survey of the most reliable estimating methods in use today —now completely rewritten and reorganized by Bruce Poling, John Prausnitz, and John O'Connell to reflect every late-breaking development. You get on-the-spot information for estimating both physical and thermodynamic properties in the absence of experimental data with this property data bank of 600+ compound constants. Bridge the gap between theory and practice with this trusted, irreplaceable, and expert-authored expert guide — the only book that includes a critical analysis of existing methods as well as hands-on practical recommendations. Areas covered include pure component constants; thermodynamic properties of ideal gases, pure components and mixtures; pressure-volume-temperature relationships; vapor pressures and enthalpies of vaporization of pure fluids; fluid phase equilibria in multicomponent systems; viscosity; thermal conductivity; diffusion coefficients; and surface tension

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2008-08-19T12:38:00.000+07:00

Schlumberger drilling CD's
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Well logging, Mud logging and Drill stem tes

2008-08-19T12:36:00.001+07:00

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Casing and Cementing

2008-08-19T12:34:00.001+07:00

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2008-08-19T12:32:00.000+07:00

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Rotating Equipments & Mast and Substructure

2008-08-19T12:31:00.001+07:00

Schlumberger drilling CD's
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2008-08-19T12:29:00.001+07:00

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2008-08-19T12:28:00.001+07:00

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2008-08-19T12:26:00.001+07:00

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BOP Equipments

2008-08-19T12:24:00.001+07:00

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An introduction to drilling rigs and main components of drill string

2008-08-19T10:41:00.003+07:00

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Piping [Lesson 1B]

2008-08-12T14:07:00.003+07:00

Sizes and Ratings
Pipe, fittings, and valves must all fit together to form a piping system. To ensure uniform sizing and rating, a system of describing sizes and ratings has been developed.

Piping Sizes and Rating To understand piping installation, you must first know how piping is measured and rated.

Piping is manufactured and sold by two independent designations:

- Nominal size

- Schedule

When fully describing a pipe, both designations must be used. In describing a pipe in the field, usually only the nominal size is used. The schedule of a pipe in service cannot be determined visually without reading the marking.

Nominal Size Nominal size is approximately the inside diameter of the pipe or fitting, expressed in inches, or fractions of an inch. The smallest nominal pipe size is 1/8 inch. In larger nominal sizes, 48 inches is not uncommon. Nominal sizes increase by standard steps in size, such as 1/8, 1/4, 1/2, 3/4, 1, 1-1/2, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 inch, and so-on.

A standard length or joint of any size pipe is 20 feet long.

Schedule
Pipe schedule is a number that expresses the ability of the pipe to resist pressure. The higher the schedule number, the greater the strength of the pipe. Pipe schedules are rated in standard units. Common schedules for piping are 20, 40, 80, 120, 160, and so-on. For the common nominal sizes up to 8 inches, standard-service pipe is rated schedule 40: below schedule 40 is light-duty piping and above schedule 40 is heavy duty piping. This designation is not true for the larger nominal sizes.

The schedule rating for piping is raised by increasing the wall thickness. The outside diameter for any nominal size pipe must remain fixed so the fittings will always fit. Therefore, to increase the schedule of a pipe, the inside diameter must be reduced to increase the wall thickness. A higher schedule number has less capacity to carry fluid than a lower schedule for any given nominal size.

Pipe Construction
Pipe is constructed by two common methods:

- Welded seam

- Seamless

Both types of construction have advantages and disadvantages.

Welded Seam Pipe
Welded seam pipe is rolled from a flat plate, and the seam is welded where the edges of the roll butt together. Welded seam pipe has uniform wall thickness but may have flaws in the weld. Welded seam pipe should not be used for corrosive liquids that could attack the weld flaws.

Seamless Pipe
Seamless pipe is extruded or forged from a solid billet of steel. It has the advantage of having no weld seam that can be attacked by corrosives. A disadvantage is the inside diameter is often oval-shaped, so the wall is not uniform in thickness. This could cause the pipe to be downgraded slightly in rating because of a thinner wall section.

Pipe Fittings
Pipe fittings are the connections used to join lengths of pipe, to change the direction of a pipe run, to reduce pipe size, or to branch a pipe run.

Some common pipe fittings are:

- Caps

- Couplings
- Ells

- Flanges

- Metering flanges

- Reducers
- Tees

Size and Rating of Pipe Fittings
Pipe fittings are sized by nominal size, the same method used for pipe.
They are rated by their working pressure, not by schedule. Examples of ratings are 150 lb, 300 lb, 400 lb, and 600 lb. The “lb” refers to the working pressure in psi (pounds per square inch). The rated “lbs” is at elevated temperature, as prescribed by ANSI (American National Standards Institute). At ambient temperatrue the strength of fittings is much higher than their rating.

Valves
Valves are inserted into piping runs to control and direct flow. Most valves are hand-operated and used to start and stop flows. For automatic process control, special valves with precision flow characteristics are remotely operated by automatic controllers.

Valves are sized and rated in the same way as fittings; that is, by nominal pipe size and by pressure rating. Standard service valves are rated at 150 lbs.

Installing Piping
Straight lengths of pipe are joined together end-to-end to make a pipe run. Fittings and valves are added to complete the run. All of this assembly must be sturdily supported, yet allow some limited movement for expansion and contraction. Because of this, piping installation is no simple thing.

How Piping, Fittings, and Valves are Joined

Joining Piping and Fittings

Steel piping and fittings are joined by two methods:

- Threaded connections

- Welded connections

Most process piping and fittings are joined by welding, especially if the piping is handling hazardous materials. Threaded connections have a tendency to crack and break at the threads when any stress is applied.

Piping lengths may be purchased with threaded ends or with beveled ends for welding. The same is true for fittings. Threaded fittings may have either male threads or female threads. (That is, they are either threaded on the outside or on the inside of the fitting wall.)

Sealing material is always applied to threaded connections before the connection is made. Sealing material may be a putty-like pipe joint compound or Teflon tape applied by wrapping the threads.
Joining Valves

Valves are seldom joined to piping by welding. Welding on valves can cause warping and leakage. Though weld valves are manufactured, most valves are installed with flanges or threaded connections. Flanges are cast as part of the valve. The valve flange mates with a flange welded to the connected piping and the valve is bolted into place. Before bolting, a gasket is inserted between the two flanges. Flanges will leak if care is not taken when they are assembled.

Pipe Supports Piping needs to be well supported to take the stress off of fittings and valves. Yet, it needs to be flexible to allow for expansion and contraction.

Pipe Racks Piping in a processing plant is laid out in parallel runs on elevated pipe racks or on piers. Pipe racks are beamed structures with posts and cross-beams at regular intervals. Tie beams and cross-bracing make the whole structure rigid.

Figure 1-2 illustrates a pipe rack.

A short length of “structural tee” is welded to the bottom of each pipe, where the pipe rests on the pipe rack. These “tee” shoes raise the pipe off the rack support beam so that insulation will not be crushed by the weight of the pipe.
Off-rack Pipe Suspension and Support Piping that descends a tower or traverses open space, away from the pipe rack, requires special support. The weight of the piping must not hang from flanges or connections or be allowed to flex into a bow. Vertical piping descending a tower is stabilized with side guides, and its weight rests on posts at the bottom. Springs and counterbalances are used to allow the pipe to expand. Horizontal runs of piping located away from the pipe rack are supported by pipe hangers, or on individual posts.

Piping [Lesson 1A]

2008-08-12T13:14:00.006+07:00

Module Objectives
At the completion of this module, you will be able to:
- Describe piping and piping systems.
- Describe the basic components of piping systems.
- Describe how piping works.
- Describe the guidelines for operating piping systems.
- Describe how to maintain piping systems.

Module Introduction
Piping is a network or system of pipes, valves, and auxiliary equipment that channels fluids (liquids, gases, or fluidized solids) between plant vessels and equipment. As an operator, you must understand how piping affects process conditions. Piping obstructions and failures can affect operating safety and efficiency and be detrimental to product quality. In this module you will learn about piping and piping systems. You will also learn how to operate and perform preventive maintenance on piping systems.

Lesson 1 — ABOUT PIPING
Lesson Objectives
In order to complete this lesson, you must:
- Define fluid, pressure, and viscosity.
- Describe the three major functions of piping.
- Describe how piping, fittings, and valves are sized and rated.
- Describe how piping is installed

Lesson Introduction Piping systems are the conduits used to efficiently carry process fluids throughout a process plant. Understanding the basic concepts of piping systems will help you become a qualified, efficient, and safe operator.

In your work as a plant operator, you will use the basic concepts of piping every day. Understanding piping principles and functions will also aid you in your study of other operator training lessons.
In this lesson you will learn the basics of fluids, pressure, and viscosity, as well as piping functions, construction, and installation.

Fluids, Pressure, and Viscosity
In a process facility, piping directs the flow of fluids between the various vessels and equipment. To understand piping and its functions, you need to first understand fluids and the forces that act upon them.

Fluids Defined A fluid is any substance that flows. This, essentially, includes all substances that are not large undivided solids. Liquids, gases, and finely divided fluidized solids are all fluids. For the purposes of this module, fluids are able to flow through an enclosed piping system.

Definition of a Liquid A liquid is a fluid that flows freely but does not have a tendency to separate. Water is a good example. Internal forces hold a liquid together in a cohesive mass, while allowing it to flow and assume the shape of its container. A liquid does not appreciably change its volume when it is exposed to pressure variations.

Definition of a Gas A gas is an uncohesive fluid that expands to completely fill its container, and it has no independent shape or volume. Gases are compressible and can expand indefinitely. Gases have a proportional relationship between their quantity, volume , pressure, and temperature. If any one of these four variables change, a proportional change must occur in one or more of the other factors.

Definition of a Fluidized Solid A finely divided solid can be made to behave as a fluid if the mass of particles is aerated. Aeration is intermixing air, steam, or other gases into a bed of small solid particles so that the particles become separated and “lubricated.” While the aeration is maintained, the aerated mass can flow through piping, valves, and fittings as if it were a liquid. An example of a fluidized solid is the circulating catalyst in a Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit

Pressure
Pressure is the force that a fluid exerts against the walls of the piping that contains it. Pressure is also the force that causes the fluid to move through the piping.

Pressure Defined Pressure is defined as a force per unit area. In the English measurement system, pressure is most often expressed as psi (pounds per square inch). This relates to the force, in pounds, that exerts itself against any square inch of area. Pressure exerts itself equally in all directions throughout any body of fluid. However, the weight of a fluid above any prescribed depth adds to the pressure at that level. This means that pressure increases with fluid depth.

Fluid Flow and Pressure Difference
Pressure Difference (dP) Pressure is the driving force to move a fluid in a piping system. To be more exact, fluid flow requires that a difference in pressure be established across the length of the pipe. The pressure must be greater at the upstream end of the pipe than at the downstream end. Pressure difference is often written as dP, d/P, or D P

NOTE
To move any fluid through a pipe, dP must be created across the pipe’s length. Either increase the upstream pressure, or decrease the downstream pressure, or both. As an example, a pump is a device that is used to increase the upstream pressure, creating dP and causing the fluid to flow.

Fluid Friction
Just as dP causes a fluid to flow, fluid friction opposes fluid flow. In any piping system, fluid friction increases with the rate of flow. When the flow begins for a given dP, flow increases until fluid friction balances the driving force. At that point, the rate of flow stops increasing and becomes constant.

NOTE
Fluid friction opposes fluid flow. Friction always increases as the flow rate increases. Therefore, for any given dP across a section of pipe, there is a steady maximum flow that results if no further restrictions are added.

Viscosity

There are two kinds of friction within any piping system:
- Wall friction between the fluid and the pipe walls
- Internal friction (or viscosity)

Viscosity, or the internal friction of a fluid, produces the greater resistance to flow. Fluids move through pipes in layers that slip by each other at different rates of flow. This shearing action creates friction. Viscosity increases with the “thickness” of the fluid. A thicker fluid has a higher viscosity (or resistance to flow).

In the pipe shown in Figure 1-1, the fluid is made to change direction with an ell-shaped fitting. In this case, the fluid turns 90° by friction with the wall of the ell. In the pipe on the right, a tee-shaped fitting is installed, and one side of the tee is plugged. Because the “dead” side of the tee is filled with fluid, the flow changes direction with friction against the “dead” fluid.

In this example the fluid friction in the tee is over nine times greater than it is in the ell, for the same flow rate. The greater friction is created by the viscosity of the fluid (or the fluid’s internal resistance to flow).

The Functions of Piping

Piping performs three major functions in the handling of fluids.

Functions The three major functions that piping performs are:
- Transporting fluids
- Containing fluid pressure
- Directing fluid flow and regulating flow rate

Transporting Fluids Piping is the conduit that contains and transports fluids throughout a processing plant. Piping can be branched to direct a fluid to several destinations simultaneously. It is the highway in which process fluids travel to reach vessels, heat exchangers, reactors, tanks, and other equipment within a process plant.

Containing Fluid Pressure Pressure is an important tool in a process. It is the energy used to move fluids through a process. It is able to concentrate a quantity of gas. And it assists chemical reactions in performing their transformations.

Piping can be designed to safely transport fluids that place extreme adverse conditions on the system. High pressure, high temperature, and corrosive fluids may be handled safely when proper design and metallurgy are used. The strength of the pipe wall determines if it can safely contain fluids under pressure.

Directing Fluid Flow and Regulating Flow Rate

As a fluid moves in a piping system, the flow may need to be manipulated. At times the flow needs to be:
- Stopped and isolated
- Regulated for rate of flow
- Routed through different piping
- Directed to a different destination

All of these operations are accomplished with valves. A valve is a special fitting with a moveable plug or gate in the flow path. When the valve is operated, the plug or gate stops or restricts the flow of fluid.

Gas Turbine Power Cycles [3]

2008-08-12T12:27:00.003+07:00

4.5. Exhaust Heat Exchanges

Because the gas leaving the turbine is hotter than the gas leaving the compressor, it is
possible to heat up the air before it enters the combustion chamber by use of an exhaust gas
heat exchanger. This results in less fuel being burned in order to produce the same
temperature prior to the turbine and so makes the cycle more efficient. The layout of such a
plant is shown on fig.8.

In order to solve problems associated with this cycle, it is necessary to determine the temperature prior to the combustion chamber (T3).

A perfect heat exchanger would heat up the air so that T3 is the same as T5. It would also cool down the exhaust gas so that T6 becomes T2. In reality this is not possible so the
concept of THERMAL RATIO is used. This is defined as the ratio of the enthalpy given to the air to the maximum possible enthalpy lost by the exhaust gas. The enthalpy lost by the exhaust gas is

∆H = mgcpg(T5-T6)

This would be a maximum if the gas is cooled down such that T6 = T2. Of course in reality
this does not occur and the maximum is not achieved and the gas turbine does not perform
as well as predicted by this idealisation. ∆H(maximum) = ∆H = mgcpg(T5-T6)

The enthalpy gained by the air is ∆H(air) = macpa(T3-T2)
Hence the thermal ratio is T.R. = macpa(T3-T2)/ mgcpg(T5-T2)

The suffix ‘a’ refers to the air and g to the exhaust gas. Since the mass of fuel added in the
combustion chamber is small compared to the air flow we often neglect the difference in
mass and the equation becomes

WORKED EXAMPLE No.5
A gas turbine uses a pressure ratio of 7.5/1. The inlet temperature and pressure are
respectively 10oC and 105 kPa. The temperature after heating in the combustion
chamber is 1300 oC. The specific heat capacity cp for air is 1.005 kJ/kg K and for the
exhaust gas is 1.15 kJ/kg K. The adiabatic index is 1.4 for air and 1.33 for the gas.
Assume isentropic compression and expansion. The mass flow rate is 1kg/s.
Calculate the air standard efficiency if no heat exchanger is used and compare it to the
thermal efficiency when an exhaust heat exchanger with a thermal ratio of 0.88 is used.

SOLUTION
Referring to the numbers used on fig.8 the solution is as follows.

In order find the thermal efficiency, it is best to solve the energy transfers.
P(in)= mcpa(T2-T1) = 1 x 1.005 (503.6-283) = 221.7 kW
P(out) = mcpg(T4-T5) = 1 x 1.15 (1573-953.6) = 712.3 kW
P(nett) = P(out) - P(in) = 397.3 kW
Φ(in)combustion chamber) = mcpg(T4-T3)
Φ(in)= 1.15(1573-953.6) = 712.3 kW
ηth = P(nett)/Φ(in) = 494.2/712.3 = 0.693 or 69.3%

Self Assessment Exercise No. 5
1. A gas turbine uses a pressure ratio of 7/1. The inlet temperature and pressure are
respectively 10oC and 100 kPa. The temperature after heating in the combustion
chamber is 1000 oC. The specific heat capacity cp is 1.005 kJ/kg K and the adiabatic
index is 1.4 for air and gas. Assume isentropic compression and expansion. The mass
flow rate is 0.7 kg/s.
Calculate the net power output and the thermal efficiency when an exhaust heat
exchanger with a thermal ratio of 0.8 is used.
(Answers 234 kW and 57%)

2. A gas turbine uses a pressure ratio of 6.5/1. The inlet temperature and pressure are
respectively 15oC and 1 bar. The temperature after heating in the combustion chamber
is 1200 oC. The specific heat capacity cp for air is 1.005 kJ/kg K and for the exhaust
gas is 1.15 kJ/kg K. The adiabatic index is 1.4 for air and 1.333 for the gas. The
isentropic efficiency is 85% for both the compression and expansion process. The mass
flow rate is 1kg/s.

Calculate the thermal efficiency when an exhaust heat exchanger with a thermal ratio
of 0.75 is used.
(Answer 48.3%)

Worked Example No.6
A gas turbine has a free turbine in parallel with the turbine which drives the
compressor. An exhaust heat exchanger is used with a thermal ratio of 0.8. The
isentropic efficiency of the compressor is 80% and for both turbines is 0.85.
The heat transfer rate to the combustion chamber is 1.48 MW. The gas leaves the
combustion chamber at 1100oC. The air is drawn into the compressor at 1 bar and
25oC. The pressure after compression is 7.2 bar.
The adiabatic index is 1.4 for air and 1.333 for the gas produced by combustion. The
specific heat cp is 1.005 kJ/kg K for air and 1.15 kJ/kg K for the gas. Determine the
following.
i. The mass flow rate in each turbine.
ii. The net power output.
iii. The thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle.

Solution

T1 = 298 K
T2= 298(7.2)(1-1/1.4) = 524 K
T4 = 1373 K
T5 = 1373(1/7.2)(1-1/1.333) = 838.5 K

COMPRESSOR
ηi = 0.8 = (524-298)/(T2-298) hence T2= 580.5 K

TURBINES
Treat as one expansion with gas taking parallel paths.
ηi = 0.85 = (1373-T5)/(1373-838.5) hence T5 = 918.7 K
HEAT EXCHANGER
Thermal ratio = 0.8 = 1.005(T3-580.5)/1.15(918.7-580.5)
hence T3= 890.1 K

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Φ(in)= mcp(T4-T3) = 1480 kW
1480 = m(1.15)(1373-890.1) hence m = 2.665 kg/s

COMPRESSOR
P(in) = mcp (T2-T1) = 2.665(1.005)(580.5-298) = 756.64 kW

TURBINE A
P(out) = 756.64 kW = mAcp(T4-T5)
756.64 = = 2.665(1.15)(1373-918.7) hence mA= 1.448 kg/s
Hence mass flow through the free turbine is 1.2168 kg/s
P(nett) = Power from free turbine =1.2168(1.15)(1373-918.7) = 635.7 kW

THERMODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY
ηth = P(nett)/Φ(in)= 635.7/1480 = 0.429 or 42.8 %

Self Assessment Exercise No. 6
1. List the relative advantages of open and closed cycle gas turbine engines.
Sketch the simple gas turbine cycle on a T-s diagram. Explain how the efficiency can be improved by the inclusion of a heat exchanger. In an open cycle gas turbine plant, air is compressed from 1 bar and 15oC to 4 bar. The
combustion gases enter the turbine at 800oC and after expansion pass through a heat
exchanger in which the compressor delivery temperature is raised by 75% of the
maximum possible rise. The exhaust gases leave the exchanger at 1 bar. Neglecting
transmission losses in the combustion chamber and heat exchanger, and differences in
compressor and turbine mass flow rates, find the following.
(i) The specific work output.
(ii) The work ratio
(iii) The cycle efficiency
The compressor and turbine polytropic efficiencies are both 0.84.
Compressor cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K γ= 1.4
Turbine cp = 1.148 kJ/kg K γ= 1.333

2. A gas turbine for aircraft propulsion is mounted on a test bed. Air at 1 bar and 293K
enters the compressor at low velocity and is compressed through a pressure ratio of 4
with an isentropic efficiency of 85%. The air then passes to a combustion chamber
where it is heated to 1175 K. The hot gas then expands through a turbine which drives
the compressor and has an isentropic efficiency of 87%. The gas is then further
expanded isentropically through a nozzle leaving at the speed of sound. The exit area
of the nozzle is 0.1 m2. Determine the following.
(i) The pressures at the turbine and nozzle outlets.
(ii) The mass flow rate.
(iii) The thrust on the engine mountings.
Assume the properties of air throughout.
The sonic velocity of air is given by

The temperature ratio before and after
the nozzle is given by
T(in)/T(out) = 2/(γ+1)

Gas Turbine Power Cycles [2]

2008-08-12T11:36:00.008+07:00

3. The Effect of Friction on The Joule Cycle

3.1 TURBINE
The isentropic efficiency for a gas turbine is given by:
ηi = (Actual change in enthalpy)/(Ideal change in enthalpy)
ηi = (Actual change in temperature)/(Ideal change in temperature)

3.2 COMPRESSOR
For a compressor the isentropic efficiency is inverted and becomes as follows.
ηi = (Ideal change in enthalpy)/(Actual change in enthalpy)
hi = (Ideal change in temperature)/(Actual change in temperature)

Remember that friction always produces a smaller change in temperature than for the ideal
case. This is shown on the T-s diagrams (fig.4a and 4b).

The power output from the turbine is hence
P(out) = m cp (T3 – T4’) ηi

The power input to the compressor is hence

P(in) = m cp (T2’ – T1)/ηi

3.3 THE CYCLE WITH FRICTION
It can be seen that the effect of friction on the gas turbine cycle is reduced power output
and increased power input with an overall reduction in nett power and thermal efficiency.
Figs. 5a and 5b show the effect of friction on T-s and p-h diagrams for the Joule cycle.

Note the energy balance which exists is
P(in) + Φ(in) = P(out) + Φ(out) P(nett) = P(out) - P(in) = Φ(nett) = Φ(in) - Φ(out)

Worked Example No.3
A Joule Cycle uses a pressure ratio of 8. Calculate the air standard efficiency. The
isentropic efficiency of the turbine and compressor are both 90%. The low pressure in
the cycle is 120 kPa. The coldest and hottest temperatures in the cycle are 20oC and
1200oC respectively. Calculate the cycle efficiency with friction and deduce the
change. Calculate the nett power output. γ = 1.4 and cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K. Take the mass
flow as 3 kg/s.

Solution

No friction ηth = 1 - rp1/γ -1 = 0.448 or 48.8 %
With friction T2' = 293 x 8 0.286 = 531 K
ηi = 0.9 = (531-293)/(T2-293) T2 = 531 K
T4' = 1473/8 0.286 = 812.7 K
ηi = 0.9 = (1473-T4)/(1473-812.7) T4= 878.7
ηth = 1 - Φ(out)/Φ(in) = 1 - (T4-T1)/(T3-T2)
ηth= 0.36 or 36%
The change in efficiency is a reduction of 8.8%
Φ(in) = m cp (T3-T2) = 3x1.005 x (1473-557) = 2760 kW
Nett Power Output = P(nett) = ηth x Φ(in) = 0.36 x 2760 = 994 kW

Self Assessment Exercise ELF No. 3
A gas turbine uses a standard Joule cycle but there is friction in the compressor and
turbine. The air is drawn into the compressor at 1 bar 15oC and is compressed with an
isentropic efficiency of 94% to a pressure of 9 bar. After heating, the gas temperature
is 1000oC. The isentropic efficiency of the turbine is also 94%. The mass flow rate is
2.1 kg/s. Determine the following.
1. The net power output.
2. The thermal efficiency of the plant.
γ = 1.4 and cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K.
(Answers 612 kW and 40.4%)

4. Variants of The Basic Cycle
In this section we will examine how practical gas turbine engine sets vary from the basic
Joule cycle.

4.1 GAS CONSTANTS
The first point is that in reality, although air is used in the compressor, the gas going
through the turbine contains products of combustion so the adiabatic index and specific
heat capacity is different in the turbine and compressor.

4.2 FREE TURBINES
Most designs used for gas turbine sets use two turbines, one to drive the compressor and a
free turbine. The free turbine drives the load and it is not connected directly to the
compressor. It may also run at a different speed to the compressor.
Fig.6a. shows such a layout with turbines in parallel configuration.

Fig.6b shows the layout with series configuration.

4.3 INTERCOOLING
This is not part of the syllabus for the power cycles but we will come across it later when
we study compressors in detail. Basically, if the air is compressed in stages and cooled
between each stage, then the work of compression is reduced and the efficiency increased.
The layout is shown on fig. 7a.

4.4 REHEATING
The reverse theory of intercooling applies. If several stages of expansion are used and the
gas reheated between stages, the power output and efficiency is increased. The layout is
shown on fig. 7b.

Worked Example No.4
A gas turbine draws in air from atmosphere at 1 bar and 10oC and compresses it to 5
bar with an isentropic efficiency of 80%. The air is heated to 1200 K at constant
pressure and then expanded through two stages in series back to 1 bar. The high
pressure turbine is connected to the compressor and produces just enough power to
drive it. The low pressure stage is connected to an external load and produces 80 kW of
power. The isentropic efficiency is 85% for both stages.
Calculate the mass flow of air, the inter-stage pressure of the turbines and the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
For the compressor γ = 1.4 and for the turbines γ = 1.333.
The gas constant R is 0.287 kJ/kg K for both.
Neglect the increase in mass due to the addition of fuel for burning.

Solution

Hence cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K for the compressor and 1.149 kJ/kg K for the turbines.

COMPRESSOR

Power input to compressor = m cp (T2-T1)
Power output of h.p. turbine = m cp (T3-T4)
Since these are equal it follows that
1.005(489.8-283)=1.149(1200-T4)

T4 =1019.1 K

HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE

LOW PRESSURE TURBINE

NETT POWER
The nett power is 80 kW hence
80 = m cp(T4-T5) = m x 1.149(1019.1 - 854.5) m = 0.423 kg/s

HEAT INPUT
Φ(in) = m cp (T3-T2) = 0.423 x 1.149 (1200 - 489.8) = 345.2 kW
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
ηth = P(nett)/Φ(in) = 80/345.2 = 0.232 or 23.2%

Self Assessment Exercise No. 4
A gas turbine draws in air from atmosphere at 1 bar and 15oC and compresses it to 4.5
bar with an isentropic efficiency of 82%. The air is heated to 1100 K at constant
pressure and then expanded through two stages in series back to 1 bar. The high
pressure turbine is connected to the compressor and produces just enough power to
drive it. The low pressure stage is connected to an external load and produces 100 kW
of power. The isentropic efficiency is 85% for both stages.
For the compressor γ = 1.4 and for the turbines γ = 1.3. The gas constant R is 0.287
kJ/kg K for both.
Neglect the increase in mass due to the addition of fuel for burning.
Calculate the mass flow of air, the inter-stage pressure of the turbines and the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
(Answers 0.642 kg/s and 20.1 %)

Gas Turbine Power Cycles [1]

2008-08-12T09:11:00.014+07:00

GAS TURBINE POWER CYCLES

In this tutorial you will do the following.

􀂃 Revise gas expansions in turbines.

􀂃 Revise the Joule cycle.

􀂃 Study the Joule cycle with friction.

􀂃 Extend the work to cycles with heat exchangers.

􀂃 Solve typical exam questions.

1. Revision of Expansion And Compression Process

When a gas is expanded from pressure p1 to pressure p2 adiabatically, the temperature ratio
is given by the formula

The same formula may be applied to a compression process. Always remember that when a
gas is expanded it gets colder and when it is compressed it gets hotter. The temperature
change is T2 - T1

If there is friction the isentropic efficiency (ηis) is expressed as
ηis = ∆T (ideal)/∆T(actual) for a compression.
ηis = ∆T (actual)/∆T(ideal) for an expansion.

An alternative way of expressing this is with POLYTROPIC EFFICIENCY η∞
For a compression from (1) to (2) the temperature ratio is expressed as follows.

and for an expansion from (1) to (2)
where η∞ is called the polytropic efficiency.

Worked Example No.1
A gas turbine expands 4 kg/s of air from 12 bar and 900oC to 1 bar adiabatically with
an isentropic efficiency of 87%. Calculate the exhaust temperature and the power
output. γ = 1.4 cp = 1005 J/kg K

Solution
T2 = T1 (1/12)1-1/1.4 = 1173 (1/12)0.2958 = 562.48 K
Ideal temperature change = 1173 - 562.48 = 610.52 K
Actual temperature change = 87% x 610.52 = 531.15 K
Exhaust temperature = 1173 - 531.15 = 641.85 K
The steady flow energy equation states
Φ + P = change in enthalpy/s
Since it is an adiabatic process Φ = 0 so
P = ∆H/s = m cp ∆T = 4 x 1005 x (531.15)
P = - 2.135 x 106 W (Leaving the system)
P(out) = 2.135 MW

Self Assessment Exercise No.1
1. A gas turbine expands 6 kg/s of air from 8 bar and 700oC to 1 bar isentropically.
Calculate the exhaust temperature and the power output. γ = 1.4 cp = 1005 J/kg K
(Answers 537.1 K and 2.628 MW)

2. A gas turbine expands 3 kg/s of air from 10 bar and 920oC to 1 bar adiabatically with
an isentropic efficiency of 92%. Calculate the exhaust temperature and the power
output. γ = 1.41 cp = 1010 J/kg K
(Answers 657.3 K and 1.62 MW)

3. A gas turbine expands 7 kg/s of air from 9 bar and 850oC to 1 bar adiabatically with an
isentropic efficiency of 87%. Calculate the exhaust temperature and the power output.
γ = 1.4 cp = 1005 J/kg K
(Answers 667.5 K and 3.204 MW)

2. The Basic Gas Turbine Cycle
The ideal and basic cycle is called the JOULE cycle and is also known as the constant
pressure cycle because the heating and cooling processes are conducted at constant
pressure. A simple layout is shown on fig. 1.
Figure 1 Illustrative diagram.
The cycle in block diagram form is shown on fig. 2.

Fig.2 Block diagram

There are 4 ideal processes in the cycle.
1 - 2 Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression requiring power input.
Pin= ∆H/s = m cp (T2-T1)

2 - 3 Constant pressure heating requiring heat input.
Φin = ∆H/s = m cp (T3-T2)

3 - 4 Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion producing power output.
Pout = ∆H/s = m cp (T3-T4)

4 - 1 Constant pressure cooling back to the original state requiring heat removal.
Φ out = ∆H/s = m cp (T4-T1)

The pressure - volume, pressure - enthalpy and temperature-entropy diagrams are shown on
figs. 3a, 3b and 3c respectively.

Fig 3 p-V diagram, p-h diagram, T-s diagram

2.1 EFFICIENCY
The efficiency is found by applying the first law of thermodynamics

It assumed that the mass and the specific heats are the same for the heater and cooler.
It is easy to show that the temperature ratio for the turbine and compressor are the same.

rp is the pressure compression ratio for the turbine and compressor.

This shows that the efficiency depends only on the pressure ratio which in turn affects the
hottest temperature in the cycle.

Worked Example No.2
A gas turbine uses the Joule cycle. The pressure ratio is 6/1. The inlet temperature to
the compressor is 10oC. The flow rate of air is 0.2 kg/s. The temperature at inlet to the
turbine is 950oC. Calculate the following.
i. The cycle efficiency.
ii. The heat transfer into the heater.
iii. The net power output.
γ = 1.4 cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K

Solution

Self Assessment Exercise No.2
A gas turbine uses the Joule cycle. The inlet pressure and temperature to the
compressor are respectively 1 bar and -10oC. After constant pressure heating, the
pressure and temperature are 7 bar and 700oC respectively. The flow rate of air is 0.4
kg/s. Calculate the following.
1. The cycle efficiency.
2. The heat transfer into the heater.
3. the nett power output.
γ = 1.4 cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K
(Answers 42.7 % , 206.7 kW and 88.26 kW)

Electrostatic Hazards Ebook

2008-08-08T15:22:00.000+07:00

Electrostatic Hazards Ebook
Title: Electrostatic Hazards
Author: Günter Luttgens, Norman Wilson
Publisher: Butterworth-Heinemann (June 24, 1997)
Hardcover: 192 pages
Language: English
ISBN-10: 0750627824
ISBN-13: 978-0750627825

EBook Description
In the US, UK and Europe there is in excess of one notifiable dust or electrostatic explosion every day of the year. This clearly makes the hazards associated with the handling of materials subject to either cause or react to electrostatic discharge of vital importance to anyone associated with their handling or industrial bulk use. This Electrostatic Hazards book provides a comprehensive guide to the dangers of static electricity and how to avoid them. It will prove invaluable to safety managers and professionals, as well as all personnel involved in the activities concerned, in the chemical, agricultural, pharmaceutical and petrochemical process industries.

The book makes extended use of case studies to illustrate the principles being expounded, thereby making it far more open, accessible and attractive to the practitioner in industry than the highly theoretical texts which are also available. The authors have many years' experience in the area behind them, including the professional teaching of the content provided here.

Günter Lüttgens is a widely acknowledged consultant who travels Europe providing training to major industrial corporations on this subject, whilst Norman Wilson practices what is written here in his professional capacity with the British Textile Technology Group.

Extended use of case studies to illustrate the principles. This makes the book far more open, accessible and attractive to the practitioner in industry than the highly theoretical texts also available. Authors have many years experience in the area. Both authors have been widely published with considerable previous book-writing experience.
Book Info: Using documented case studies, text provides a comprehensive guide to the dangers and avoidance of static electricity hazards in chemical, agricultural, pharmaceutical & petrochemical process industries.

Ebook Review'
This book provides industrial practitioners an insight into the nature of static electricity, and cites specific examples of problems that can occur in the workplace, along with suggested safety measures that can be taken...the case studies provide much useful information...a useful addition to the technical library of chemical engineers involved in process safety/loss prevention, design, and production.' --Jnl. of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries

'This book provides a valuable reference to safety professional personnel involved in chemical, agricultural, pharmaceutical and petrochemical process engineering.' --Health and safety at Work.

'This book provides a comprehensive guide to the dangers of static electricity and how to avoid them.' --International Logistics

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Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations

2008-08-08T14:45:00.001+07:00

Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations

Ebook Title: Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations

Author: Tyler G. Hicks

Publisher: McGraw-Hill Professional; 4 edition (August 1, 2004)

Hardcover: 1200 pages

Language: EnglishI

SBN-10: 0071427937

ISBN-13: 978-0071427937

Ebook Description

Now substantially revised and improved, this invaluable handbook provides engineers and technicians with more than 5,000 direct and related calculations for solving day-to-day problems quickly and easily. Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations covers 13 disciplines--including civil, architectural, mechanical, electrical, electronics, control, marine, and nuclear engineering--enabling readers to become familiar with procedures in fields apart from their own. The third edition features a major new section on environmental engineering, plus increased emphasis on environmental factors in the other 12 disciplines.

NEW IN THIS EDITION:

- Complying with the latest environmental regulations

- Design code changes

- LEED design considerations

- HVAC procedures- Mobile and in-the-field methods

Inside, you'll find new problem-solving coverage of:

- Anti-terrorism structural building changes

- Power-plant cost-cutting

- Efficient compliance with environmental regulations

- Wind energy systems

- LEED considerations in building design

- Developments in pumps and related calculations

- Freon-replacing refrigerants

- Computer programs that automate repetitive calculations

- Finite element analytic methods

The fourth edition of Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations is a reference engineers will thank for answers time after time. Open this book for all the calculations you need in: Civil Engineering, Architectural Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering, Chemical and Process Plant Engineering, Sanitary Engineering, Environmental Engineering

Ebook Review

H. I. Epstein, University of Connecticut, Choice : This new edition (3rd ed., CH, Apr'95) of this handbook is divided into seven sections covering the fields of civil, architectural, mechanical, electrical, chemical and process plant, water and wastewater, and environmental engineering. Within each section there are several major topics, further divided into numerous subtopics...

Sci-Tech Book News : This resource for practicing engineers presents more than 5000 calculation procedures for solving common engineering problems. The volume is divided into sections corresponding to seven engineering disciplines: civil, architectural, mechanical, electrical, sanitary, environmental, and chemical. Utilizing a "cookbook" format, the handbook describes the problem to be solved; provides numbered calculation procedures to be followed; works out an example problem; and (in most instances) presents related calculations.

About the Author

Tyler G. Hicks, PE is a consulting engineer and a successful engineering book author, with more than 20 titles to his credit. He has worked in plant design and operation in a variety of industries, taught at several engineering schools, and lectured both in the United States and abroad. He holds a bachelor's degree in mechanical engineering from Cooper Union School of Engineering in New York. He lives in Rockville Center, New York.

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Design for Process Safety

2008-08-06T00:15:00.003+07:00

Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety
Description
Inherently safer plants begin with the initial design. Here is where integrity and reliability can be built in at the lowest cost, and with maximum effectiveness. This book focuses on process safety issues in the design of chemical, petrochemical, and hydrocarbon processing facilities. It discusses how to select designs that can prevent or mitigate the release of flammable or toxic materials, which could lead to a fire, explosion, or environmental damage. All engineers on the design team, the process hazard analysis team, and those who make basic decisions on plant design, will benefit from its comprehensive coverage, its organization, and the extensive references to literature, codes, and standards that accompany each chapter.
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Process Engineering HandBook

2008-07-25T09:59:00.000+07:00

Green Separations Process .pdf 4.44M download
Measurement Process characterization .pdf 3.12M download
Statistical Process Control .pdf 2.86M download
Green Separations Process .pdf 4.4M download
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Industrial Chemical Process Design .pdf 6.3M download
Managing the IT Services Process .pdf 1.76M download
Systematic Process Improvement Using ISO 9001 .pdf 3.30M download
Control Valves in Process Plant .pdf 0.6M download
Chemical.Process.Equipment-Selection Design-SMWalas .pdf 27.8M download
SAMS - Object Oriented Thought Process. 2Nd Ed .chm 2.70M Download
addison wesley - rational unified process made easy .chm 2.9M Download
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lieberman - a working guide to Process equipment .pdf 15.3M download
Wiley .Business.Process.Outsourcing.The.Competitive.Advantage. 2006 .pdf 1.71M Download
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APPLIED Process DESIGN FOR CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL PLANTS .pdf 25.5M download
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Lee s Loss Prevention in the Process Industries V2 .pdf 9.58M download
Lee s Loss Prevention in the Process Industries V1 .pdf 9.49M download
Lee s Loss Prevention in the Process Industries V3 .pdf 9.91M download
Just Enough Project Management The Indispensable Four Step Process .chm 3.35M download
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Chemical Process Safety 2nd ed Daniel A. Crowl Joseph F. Louvar .pdf10.31M Download
chemical Process control a first course with matlab - p.c. chau crc .pdf 1.3M download
management of the object-oriented development Process roussev1.and.liu idea.press .pdf 6.3M download

Mechanical HandBooks

2008-07-25T09:39:00.000+07:00

Mechanical Engineering Handbook.pdf Download
Mechanical Engineers Data Handbook.pdf 14.97M Download
Mechanical Engineers Reference Book.pdf 47.29M Download
Mechanical Engineer s Handbook.pdf 17.98M Download
Mechanical engineering handbook 2005.pdf 34.2M Download
Dynamics of Mechanical systems.pdf 10.6M Download
Mechanical engineering handbooks-thermodynamics.pdf 2.75M Download
Tribology in Chemical-Mechanical Planarization.pdf 4.3M Download
Geometric Control of Mechanical Systems-Bullo djvu 11.5M Download
EBook - CRC Press Mechanical Engineering Handbook 1999.pdf 34.2M Download
CRC.Press.Applied.Structural.and.Mechanical.Vibrations.pdf-0419227105 .pdf 5.3M Download
EBook engineering Henry T. Brown - Five hundred and seven Mechanical movements.pdf 18.5M Download
Oxford English for electrical and Mechanical engineering von Eric H. glendinning ebook.djvu 34.7M Download
Advances in Integrated Design and Manufacturing in Mechanical Engineering.pdf 26.8M Download

Robotics HandBook

2008-07-18T11:18:00.002+07:00

1.) PIC Robotics: A Beginner's Guide to Robotics Projects Using the PIC Micro Click here
2.) Applications of Robotics and Artificial Intelligence to Reduce Risk and Improve Effectiveness Click here
3.) Practical Troubleshooting of Electrical Equipment and Control Circuits Click here
4.) Theory and Design of Electrical and Electronic Circuits Click here
5.) The Incremental Development of a Synthetic Multi-Agent System - The UvA Trilearn 2001 Robotic Soccer Simulation Team Click here
6.) Amphibionics -Build Your Own Biologically Inspired Robot Click here
7.) Anatomy of a Robot - McGraw Hill Click here
8.) Applied Sensors 1.3 Click here
9.) Build Your Own Combat Robot Click here
10.) CRC Press - Measurement Instrumentation Sensors Click here
11.) CRC Press - Mechanical Engineering Handbook - Robotics Click here
12.) CRC Press - Multi-Agent Robotic Systems - 2001 International Series on Computational Intelligence Click here
13.) ebook - Robot - Sensors and Methods for Mobile Robot Positioning - 1996 Click here
14.) Efficient Collision Detection for Animation and Robotics Click here
15.) Engineering - Mathematical Methods for Robotics and Vision Click here
16.) Feedback.Control.for.a.Path.Following.Robotic.Car Click here
17.) Ieee - Analog Circuit Design Click here
18.) Mcgraw Hill - 2003 - Robot Mechanisms And Mechanical Devices Illustrated Click here
19.) McGraw Hill - Using Your Pda To Control Your Robot Click here
20.) McGraw-Hill - Build a Remote Controlled Robot Click here
21.) Mcgraw-Hill - Schaum'S Easy Outlines - Theory And Problems Of Electric Circuits Click here
22.) MEMS Mechanical Sensors Click here
23.) MIT.Press.Introduction.to.Autonomous.Mobile.Robots Click here
24.) Open-Source Robotics And Proces Control Cookbook Click here
25.) Absolute Beginners Guide To Building Robots Click here
26.) Robot Builder Guide Click here
27.) Wireless Sensors Wireless Sensor Network Designs Click here
28.) Understanding And Applying Machine Vision Click here
29.) Robotics Process Control Book Click here
30.) ROBOTICS Designing the Mechanisms for Automated Machinery Click here
31.) Sensors Applications - Vol1. Sensors in Manufacturing [Wiley & Sons] Click here
32.) Springer - Fundamentals of Robotic Mechanical Systems - Theory, Methods and Algorithms, 2nd Ed - 2003 Click here
33.) Robotic Subsurface Mapping Using gpr Click here
34.) The Unofficial Guide to LEGO MINDSTORMS Robots Click here
35.) 10 Cool LEGO Mindstorm Robotics Invention System 2 Projects Click here
36.) SYNGRESS - 10 Cool LEGO Mindstorms Dark Side Robots, Transports, And Creatures Click here
37.) Syngress - LEGO Mindstorms Masterpieces Building and Programming Advanced Robots Click here
38.) Newnes - Sensor Technology Handbook (2005) Click here
39.) Handbook of Computer Vision Algorithms in Image Algebra Click here
40.) Sensors and Transducers (Third edition) Click here
41.) WILEY - Robot Vision - 2005 Click here
42.) Analog and Digital Circuits For Electronic Control System Applications Using The TI MSP430 Microcontroller
Click here
43.) Microprocessor Design VHDL Click here
44.) Interfacing A Gps To An Lcd Using A Microcontroller Click here
45.) PIC microcontrollers for beginners Book Click here

46.) Wrox Visual Basic 2005 Programmer's Reference Click here
47.) Every Tool in Photoshop Explained(132 Pages)-Image included Click here

Compressors

2008-07-17T07:35:00.009+07:00

Lesson 1 — ABOUT COMPRESSORS

Lesson Objectives
- In order to complete this lesson, you must:
- Describe the basic functions of compressors.
- Describe three common types of compressors.
- Identify common types of compressors in the field.

Lesson Introduction
This lesson identifies three common types of compressors used in the process industry: the reciprocating compressor, the centrifugal compressor, and the liquid ring compressor. Other types of compressors are not as common and will not be discussed in this module. When the general principles of gas compression are understood, the design of most compressors should become be readily comprehensible.
This training is important because understanding how compressors are used in your process is essential to understanding your job. Compressors are capable of building very high pressures, and are subject to other inherent hazards. Understanding the types of compressors and their particular hazards is essential to operating your process in a safe manner.
In this lesson, you will learn the basic function of compressors and the three most common types of compressors.

Basic Functions of Compressors
Compressors are used throughout the process industry to compress and move a wide variety of gases and vapors safely and efficiently.

Function of Gas Compressors
Compressors increase the pressure of gases or vapors in a process system so that these materials will flow through the process at the required rates. Medium to high pressure is required for some processes to properly operate. Compressors are frequently the primary source for pressurizing these kinds of processes. For example, gas recovery plants, hydrogen processing units, and many chemical manufacturing processes all depend on compressors to develop the needed operating pressure.

Operating Conditions Vary the Design
Gas compressor design varies with the operating conditions of the gas. The design variations create types of compressors that perform one or more of the following services:
- Create very high pressure.
- Pump very high flow rates.
- Move hazardous gases without endangering personnel or the environment because of any external leakage.
- Create a vacuum. Compressors in this application are commonly called vacuum pumps and must maintain an extremely high vacuum.
No one design can simultaneously perform every service efficiently. Compressors must be carefully chosen for the type of service the process requires. Most process operators must be familiar with several types of compressors.

Three Common Types of Compressors

There are many variations in the design of compressors. This section will describe three common types and their features. These compressor types are:
1. Reciprocating
2. Centrifugal
3. Liquid Ring

Reciprocating Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors Reciprocating compressors compress gas by the action of a piston moving in a back-and-forth motion within a cylinder. These types of compressors are best suited to generate very high pressures and to move low volumes of gas.

Centrifugal Compressors

Centrifugal CompressorsGas in a centrifugal compressor is compressed by a series of impellers rotating at very high speed, often in excess of 10,000 rpm. Their unique sealing system makes these compressors ideal for handling hazardous and toxic gases. There is virtually no leakage to contaminate the environment or create a health hazard. Centrifugal compressors are best suited for pumping very high flow rates.

Liquid Ring Compressors

A liquid ring compressor consists of a rotor that spins a liquid inside a cylindrical casing. As the liquid spins, centrifugal force shapes it into a donut-like ring. Gas is compressed within the donut hole by the interaction between the liquid and the rotor. Liquid ring compressors are highly efficient, with virtually no internal recycling of the discharge gas back into the suction. This feature makes them suitable for vacuum pumps for high vacuum service. They are often used for vacuum distillation columns, for steam turbine surface condensers, for evaporators, and for vacuum boilers for crystallization.

Summary

In this lesson, you learned the basic functions that compressors perform. You also learned about three common types of compressors. You have learned to identify the common types of compressors.
In the next lesson, you will learn the major components of the three common types of compressors.

Geothermal Energy

2008-07-14T20:52:00.002+07:00

Geothermal Energy

Book Description:
More than 20 countries generate electricity from geothermal resources and about 60 countries make direct use of geothermal energy. A ten-fold increase in geothermal energy use is foreseeable at the current technology level. ...

Geothermal Energy: An Alternative Resource for the 21st Century provides a readable and coherent account of all facets of geothermal energy development and summarizes the present day knowledge on geothermal resources, their exploration and exploitation. Accounts of geothermal resource models, various exploration techniques, drilling and production technology are discussed within 9 chapters, as well as important concepts and current technological developments.

* Interdisciplinary approach, combining traditional disciplines such as geology, geophysics, and engineering
* Provides a readable and coherent account of all facets of geothermal energy development
* Describes the importance of bringing potable water to high-demand areas such as the tropical regions

AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT 2007

2008-07-14T20:49:00.002+07:00

AutoCAD 2007 and AutoCAD LT 2007

Popular among both novice and experienced AutoCAD users, this comprehensive book begins with an overview of the basics of AutoCAD, such as creating drawings, using commands, and specifying coordinates. Coverage becomes more in-depth as each chapter builds off the previous one, with discussions of 2D and 3D drawing techniques, using layers, creating dimensions, 3D coordinates, and rendering. You ll learn to customize commands and toolbars; program AutoCAD using Auto LISP and VBA; and review AutoCAD LT. A "Quick Start" will have beginners creating a CAD drawing on their first day. The accompanying CD-ROM provides before-and-after real-world drawings, bonus appendices, freeware and shareware programs, the book in searchable PDF format, and a 30-day trial version of AutoCAD software.

This book covers every significant AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT feature. If you're a beginning user, you'll find everything you need to start out; if you're already using AutoCAD or AutoCAD LT regularly, the book covers advanced material as well. Although you can use this book as a tutorial if you're just starting out or learning a new set of features, it also provides a solid reference base to come back to again and again. The short tutorials on almost every topic will quickly have you drawing professionally. The CD-ROM is chock-full of drawings, a trial version of AutoCAD 2007, and add-in programs (which are mostly for AutoCAD only). This book should be all that you need to make full use of either program.

TABLE OF CONTENT:
Part 1 - AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT Basics
Part 2 - Drawing in Two Dimensions
Part 3 - Working with
Part 4 - Drawing in Three Dimensions
Part 5 - Organizing and Managing Drawings
Part 6 - Customizing AutoCAD
Part 7 - Programming AutoCAD

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High-Tech Practical

2008-07-13T19:48:00.001+07:00

51 High-Tech Practical Jokes for the Evil Genius

Author: Brad Graham, Kathy McGowan

Publisher: McGraw-Hill / TAB Electronics

Date: September 19, 2007Pages: 224

Description:

This book was written for all those who feel the irresistible urge to break open the case to see what makes that appliance or electronic device work. "There are no user serviceable parts inside," or "disassembly will void the warranty" are phrases that simply fuel the fire for us hardware-hacking Evil Geniuses. The ability to make an electronic or mechanical device do things that it was not intended for is a skill that is easily learned by anyone who is not afraid to put his or her crazy ideas to the test, and possibly blow a few fuses or fry a few circuits along the way.

You do not need an engineering degree or a room full of sophisticated tools to become a successful hardware hacker, just the desire to create, a good imagination and a large pile of junk to experiment with.51 High-Tech Practical Jokes for the Evil Genius gives you:Instructions and plans for 51 simple-to-advanced projects, complete with 200 how-to illustrations that let you build each device visually Frustration-factor removal -- all the needed parts are listed, along with sources Video links to many of the practical jokes on YouTube.com

PDF 9.3 MB Download

The Art of Electronics, 2Ed

2008-07-13T19:45:00.001+07:00

The Art of Electronics, Second Edition

Author: Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Date: July 28, 1989Pages: 1,125

Description:

This is the thoroughly revised and updated second edition of the hugely successful The Art of Electronics. Widely accepted as the authoritative text and reference on electronic circuit design, both analog and digital, this book revolutionized the teaching of electronics by emphasizing the methods actually used by circuit designers -- a combination of some basic laws, rules of thumb, and a large bag of tricks.

The result is a largely nonmathematical treatment that encourages circuit intuition, brainstorming, and simplified calculations of circuit values and performance. The new Art of Electronics retains the feeling of informality and easy access that helped make the first edition so successful and popular. It is an ideal first textbook on electronics for scientists and engineers and an indispensable reference for anyone, professional or amateur, who works with electronic circuits.

PDF 64.5 MB Download

Process Engineering

2008-07-13T19:41:00.002+07:00

Process Engineering and Design Using Visual Basic

Author: Arun Datta

Publisher: CRC

Date: October 8, 2007

Pages: 472

Description:

Software tools are a great aid to process engineers, but too much dependence on such tools can often lead to inappropriate and suboptimal designs. Reliance on software is also a hindrance without a firm understanding of the principles underlying its operation, since users are still responsible for devising the design.In Process Engineering and Design Using Visual Basic, the author provides a unique and versatile suite of programs along with simultaneous development of the underlying concepts, principles, and mathematics.

Each chapter details the theory and techniques that provide the basis for design and engineering software and then showcases the development and utility of programs developed using the material outlined in the chapter. This all-inclusive guide works systematically from basic mathematics to fluid mechanics, separators, overpressure protection, and glycol dehydration, providing basic design guidelines based on international codes.

Worked examples demonstrate the utility of each program, while the author also explains problems and limitations associated with the simulations. After reading this book you will be able to immediately put these programs into action and have total confidence in the result, regardless of your level of experience.

PDF 14.8 MB Download

Engineering Equation Solver (EES)

2008-07-11T14:24:00.000+07:00

Engineering Equation Solver (EES)
just forget those BULKY (>700 MB,Eg:Matlab & etc..,) software to accomplish simple mathematics . i have used this software for years for my labs and thermodynamics just check out this simple but very powerful software for your handy calculations . here is a brief intro..

EES ('ease') is a revolutionary program which will change the way you think and work. EES provides capabilities not found in any other equation solving program. EES will solve large sets of non-linear algebraic and differential equations. EES also provides publication-quality plots, linear and non-linear regression, optimization, unit conversion and consistency checking, and uncertainty analyses. Built-in functions are provided for thermodynamic and transport properties of many substances, including steam, air, refrigerants, cryogenic fluids, JANAF table gases, hydrocarbons and psychrometrics. Additional property data can be added. EES also allows user-written functions, procedures, modules, and tabular data. EES can also interface with REFPROP and other NIST fluid property programs. REFPROP provides the most advanced methods for estimating the properties of mixtures. The Professional version allows many other additional features including animation and the ability to make stand-alone programs.

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Pipe Flow Expert V 1.08

2008-07-11T14:14:00.003+07:00

Pipe Flow Expert V 1.08
Reference
Download link with rapidshare

Pipe Flow Expert - View Screenshots of the flow & pressure calculations Click on an image or link to enlarge the screenshot image and see a description of the screen.

Pipe Flow System Drawing Area - Configure Pipe Flow Units - Configure Pipe Flow Labels - Fluid Database and Fluid Characteristics - Pipe Size & Materials Database - Pipe Fittings Database - Pump Characteristics & Curve Data - Pipe Flow Expert Results shown in Drawing Pane - Results Grid

Compact Heat Exchanger

2008-07-11T13:31:00.003+07:00

Product Description
This book presents the ideas and industrial concepts in compact heat exchanger technology that have been developed in the last 10 years or so. Historically, the development and application of compact heat exchangers and their surfaces has taken place in a piecemeal fashion in a number of rather unrelated areas, principally those of the automotive and prime mover, aerospace, cryogenic and refrigeration sectors. Much detailed technology, familiar in one sector, progressed only slowly over the boundary into another sector. This compartmentalisation was a feature both of the user industries themselves, and also of the supplier, or manufacturing industries. These barriers are now breaking down, with valuable cross-fertilisation taking place.

One of the industrial sectors that is waking up to the challenges of compact heat exchangers is that broadly defined as the process sector. If there is a bias in the book, it is towards this sector. Here, in many cases, the technical challenges are severe, since high pressures and temperatures are often involved, and working fluids can be corrosive, reactive or toxic. The opportunities, however, are correspondingly high, since compacts can offer a combination of lower capital or installed cost, lower temperature differences (and hence running costs), and lower inventory. In some cases they give the opportunity for a radical re-think of the process design, by the introduction of process intensification (PI) concepts such as combining process elements in one unit. An example of this is reaction and heat exchange, which offers, among other advantages, significantly lower by-product production.

To stimulate future research, the author includes coverage of hitherto neglected approaches, such as that of the Second Law (of Thermodynamics), pioneered by Bejan and co- workers. The justification for this is that there is increasing interest in life-cycle and sustainable approaches to industrial activity as a whole, often involving exergy (Second Law) analysis. Heat exchangers, being fundamental components of energy and process systems, are both savers and spenders of exergy, according to interpretation.

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Process Heat Transfer

2008-07-11T13:24:00.003+07:00

Process Heat Transfer Principles & Applications
Publisher: Academic Press Book
Description: Process Heat Transfer Rules of Thumb investigates the design and implementation of industrial heat exchangers. It provides the background needed to understand and master the commercial software packages used by professional engineers for design and analysis of heat exchangers. This book focuses on the types of heat exchangers most widely used by industry, namely shell-and-tube exchangers (including condensers, reboilers and vaporizers), air-cooled heat exchangers and double-pipe (hairpin) exchangers. It provides a substantial introduction to the design of heat exchanger networks using pinch technology, the most efficient strategy used to achieve optimal recovery of heat in industrial processes.

· Utilizes leading commercial software important to professional engineers designing heat exchangers.
· Illustrates design procedures using complete step-by-step worked examples.
· Provides details on how to develop an initial configuration for a heat exchanger and how to systematically modify it to obtain a final design.
· Abundant example problems solved manually and with the integration of computer software.

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Heat Exchanger Design Handbook

2008-07-11T13:02:00.002+07:00

Heat Exchanger Design Handbook
It was an education to go through the Heat Exchanger Design Handbook authored by Mr. T. Kuppan.

The author should be complemented for his attempt in compiling relevant and useful information for all types of heat exchangers covering design concepts, materials, fabrication, quality control and other in-service related problems. So far, many practicing engineers need to refer to several books/codes to know the various aspects relating to heat exchangers.

The author has done his best to bring out the Handbook for ready reference with formulae, data and with good illustrations. This reference book will be very useful to consultants, designers, manufacturers and users of heat exchangers and will also serve the interests of educational institutions. I hope this book will benefit the industry and will find worldwide acceptance. ---A. Srinivasulu, FNAE, CE (India), FIE., Managing Director, Germanischer Lloyd Industrial Services India Pvt.Ltd.,Chennai, INDIA Formerly Director, Engg. and R&D, BHEL, New Delhi, INDIA This book is a compendium of several topics pertaining to the design of heat exchanger design. Besides basic concepts and thermal design of heat exchangers, inclusion of topics such as mechanical design, materials selection, fabrication, quality control and testing during heat exchanger manufacture is a speciality of this treatise. It is rare to find such a volume integrating several topics giving a throughness to the design of heat exchangers. The book addresses to the need of both academics (UG and PG level) and practitioners. ---Prof. S. Subramanyam, Ph.D., Former Vice-Chancellor, Bharathiar University,Coimbagtore, INDIA The Heat Exchanger Design Handbook is a valuable addition to the thermal engineering literature.

It is an excellent source book for heat exchanger design and is unique in that it gives a comprehensive coverage of such topics as mechanical design of-, corrosion in-, and materials for heat exchangers that are generally not touched upon in-depth in books of this genre. The chapter of Heat Exchanger Thermohydraulic Fundamentals will be a very useful reference for teachers of this subject. Practising engineers should find this book a veritable goldmine of information on all aspects of heat exchangers - conception, design, fabrication, inspection and maintenance. I am sure that the monumental task creditably accomplished by the author, keep this tome as a centerpiece of the heat exchanger literature for many years to come. ---Prof. V. M. Krishna Sastri, Ph.D.(Delaware), Fellow ASME, Fellow INAE, Fellow Alexander von Humboldt, Emeritus Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, INDIA

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API Code

2008-07-11T08:47:00.000+07:00

API Code
The American Petroleum Institute, commonly referred to as API, is the main U.S trade association for the oil and natural gas industryStandards For more than 75 years, API has led the development of petroleum and petrochemical equipment and operating standards. These represent the industry’s collective wisdom on everything from drill bits to environmental protection and embrace proven, sound engineering and operating practices and safe, interchangeable equipment and materials. API maintains more than 500 standards and recommended practices. Many have been incorporated into state and federal regulations; and increasingly, they’re also being adopted by the International Organization for Standardization, a global federation of more than 100 standards groups.

API Code Standard The American Petroleum Institute
API 06AM 2nd ed 09 95 Material Toughness
API 006D Pipeline Valves
API 510 8th Ed Incl Add3 Dec 2001 Pres Vessel Inspection Code
API 526 flanged steel pressure Relief valves
API 527 for seat tightness of pressure relife valves
API 560 3rd Ed May 2001 Fired Heaters for general Refinery Services
API 594 Check Valves 5th ed 1997
API 598 7th ED Oct 1996 Valve Inspection and Testing
API 610 8th Ed, Aug 1995 Cent Pumps
API 611 4th Ed, Jun 1997 Steam Turb
API 612 4th Ed, Jun 1995 Spec Purp Steam Turb
API 613 4th Ed, Jun 1995 Spec Purp Gear Units
API 614 4th Ed, Apr 1999 Lub, Shaft Seal, Control Oil Sys and aux
API 616 4th Ed, Aus 1998 Gas Turbines
API 617 6th Ed, Feb 1995 Centrifugal Compressors
API 618 4th Ed, Jun 1995 Recip Compressors
API 619 3rd Ed, Jun 1997 Pos Disp Compressor
API 620 10th ed Feb 02 Design and Construction of Large Welded LP Storage Tanks
API 650 Welded Tanks for Oil Storage 10th Ed Add1 Mar 2000
API 653 3rd Ed Dec 01 Tank Insp Repair Alteration and Reconstruction
API 660 Feb 2001 6th Ed Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers
API 661 Nov 1997 4th ed Air Cooled Heat Exchangers
API 670 4th Ed Dec 2000 Machinery Prot Sys
API 530 4th ed Ocy 1996 Calc of Heater Tube Thickness
API 671 3rd Ed Oct 1998 Spec Purp Couplings
API 672 3rd Ed Sep 1996 Integ Geared Centrif Air Comp
API 674 2nd Ed Jun 1995 Pos Disp Pumps
API 675 2nd Ed Oct 1994 Pos Disp Pumps Controlled Vol
API 677 2nd Ed Jul 1997 Gear Units
API 681 1st Ed Feb 1996 Liq Ring Vac Pumps and Compressors
API 682 1st Ed Oct 1994 Shaft Sealing Sys for Cent and Rotary Pumps
API 683 1st Ed Sep 1993 Quality Improvement Manual for Mech Equipment
API 2510 8th Ed May 2001 Design and Construction od LPG Facilities
API 2510a 2nd Ed May 2001 Fire Protection of LPG Facilities
APIAPI PUB 534 1st Ed Jan 95 Heat Recovery Steam Generators
API PUB 684 1st Ed Feb 1996 Rotoro Dynamics and Balancing
API PUB 760 2nd Ed Jun 1998 Model Risk Management Plan
API Pub 938 May 1996 1 1 4 Cr 1 2 Mo Crack Repairs
API Pub 959 May 1982 Temper Embrittlement of Cr Mo Steels
API RP 500 2nd Ed 1997 Area Classification
API RP 505 1st Ed 1997 Area Classification
API RP 521 4th Ed Mar 97 Guide for Pres Rel and Depres Sys
API RP 540 4th Ed Apr 99 Electrical Inst
API RP 572 Management of Hazards Associated with Location of Process PLants and Buildings
API RP 573 1st Ed Oct 91 Inspection of Fired Boilers and Heaters
API RP 574 2nd Ed Jun 98 Inspection Practices for Piping System Components
API RP 576 2nd Ed Dec 00 Inspection of Pressure Relieving devices
API RP 579 1st Ed Mar 00 Fitness for Service
API RP 686 1st Ed Apr 1996 Machinery Inst Guide
API RP 934 1st Ed Dec 2000
API RP 945 2nd Ed Oct 97 Avoiding Environment Cracking In Amine Units
API RP 945 2nd Ed Oct 97 Avoiding Environment Cracking In Amine Units
API RP 1104 19tht Ed Oct 01 Welding of pipelines and related facilities
API RP 2028 3rd Ed Feb 02 Flame Arrestors in Piping Systems
API 579 1st Ed Revised Mar 2000 Fitness for service 1 - 100
API RP 2350 2nd Ed 1996 Overfill Prot For Storage Tanks

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Dokumentation
Dokumentation1
Dokumentation2
Dokumentation3
Dokumentation4
Dokumentation5
Dokumentation6
Dokumentation7
Dokumentation8
Dokumentation9
Dokumentation10
Dokumentation11
Dokumentation12
API RP 553 Refinery Control Valves
API RP 552 Transmission Systems1
API RP 551 Process Measurement Instrumentation
API RP 505 Elec Class Zone 0-1-2
API RP 505 Classification of Locations for Electrical Installations Class 1 Zone 0-1-2
API RP 500 Electrical classifications
API RP 500 ERRATA
API RP 80 Definition of Onshore Gas Gathering Lines
API RP 75 Development of a Safety Environmental Management Program for Outer Continental
API RP 68 Well Servicing Workover Operations Involving Hydrogen Sulfide
API RP 67 Oilfield Explosives Safety
API RP 60 Testing High-Strength Proppants Used in Hydraulic Fracturing
API RP 58 Testing Sand Used in Gravel Packing Operations
API RP 56 Testing Sand Used in Hydraulic Fracturing Operasions
API RP 55 Oil and Gas Producing Gas Processing Plant Operations Involving Hydrogen Sulfide
API RP 54 Occupational Safety for Oil Gas Well Drilling Servicing Operations
API RP 53 Blowout Prevention Equipment Systems for Drilling Wells
API RP 52 Land Drilling Practices for Protection of the Environment
API RP 51 Onshore Oil and Gas Production Practices for Protection of the Environment
API RP 50 Natural Gas Processing Plant Practices for Protection of the Environment
API RP 49 Drilling and Well Servicing Operations Involving Hydrogen Sulfide
API RP 45 Analysis of Oilfield Waters
API RP 41 Presenting Performance Data on Cementing and Hydraulic Fracturing Equipment
API RP 40 Core Analysis
API RP 39 Measuring the Viscous Properties of a Cross-linked Water-based Fracturing Fluid
API RP 505 1st Ed 1997 Area Classification
API 620 Welded Storage Tanks
API Tanks Tutorial Engineering
API SPEC 16R Marine Drilling Riser Couplings
API SPEC 16D Control Systems for Drilling Well Control Equipment
API SPEC 16C Choke and Kill Systems
API SPEC 16A Drill Through Equipment
API SPEC 12P Fiberglass Reinforced Plastic Tanks
API SPEC 12L Vertical Horizontal Emulsion Treaters
API SPEC 12K Indirect Type Oil-Field Heaters
API SPEC 12J Oil and Gas Separators1
API SPEC 12F Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids
API SPEC 12DGU Glycol-Type Gas Dehydration Units
API SPEC 12D Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids
API SPEC 12B Bolted Tanks for Storage of Production Liquids
API SPEC 11V1 Gas Lift Equipment
API SPEC 11 Sucker Rod
API SPEC 11P Packaged Reciprocating Compressors
API SPEC 11N Lease Automatic Custody Transfer LACT Equipment
API SPEC 11L6 Electric Motor Prime Mover for Beam Pumping Unit Service
API SPEC 11E Pumping Units
API SPEC 11AX Subsurface Sucker Rod Pumps Fittings
API SPEC 10D Bow-Spring Casing Centralizers
API SPEC 10A Cements and Materials for Well Cementing
API SPEC 9A Wire Rope
API SPEC 8C Drilling Production Hoisting Equipment PSL 1 and PSL 2
API SPEC 8A Drilling and Production Hoisting Equipment
API SPEC 7K Drilling and Well Servicing Equipment
API SPEC 7F Oil-Field Chain and Sprockets
API SPEC 7B-11C for Internal-Combustion Reciprocating Engines for Oil Services
API SPEC 7 Rotary Drill Stem Elements
API SPEC 6FC Fire Test for Valves With Automatic Backseats
API SPEC 6FA Fire Test for Valves
API SPEC 6D Pipeline Valves
API SPEC 5LC CRA Line Pipe
API SPEC 5L 2000
API SPEC 5CT Casing and Tubing
API SPEC 5CT Casing and Tubing METRIC
API SPEC 4F Drilling and Well Servicing Structures
API RP 2350 Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks In Petroleum Facilities
API RP 2220 Improving Owner and Contractor Safety Performance
API RP 2201 Procedure for Welding or Hot Tapping on Equipment in Service
API RP 574 Inspection Practices for Piping System Components
API RP 572 Inspection of Pressure Vessels Towers Drums Reactors Heat Exchangers Condensers
API RP 557 Guide To Advanced Control Systems
API RP 554 Process Instrumentation and Control